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FARM  MET 


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FIEDEBIC  W.  TAYLOR. 


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^  SOIL  CULTURE  AND  ^ 
MODERN  FARM  METHODS 


BY 

DR.W.  E.TAYLOR 

DIRECTOR  OF  JOHN  DEERES 
SOIL  CULTURE  DEPARTMENT 


ISSUED  BY 

DEERE  6  COMPANY 

MANUFACTURERS  OF  HIGH  GRADE 
AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS 

MOLINE.    ILLINOIS,     U.   S.  A 


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SOIL  CULTURE 


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SOIL  is  the  source  of  all  wealth.  From  the 
soil  directly  or  indirectly  human  beings 
and  all  animate  creatures  obtain  food. 
When  the  Creator  planned  this  universe, 
He  apparently  provided  every  element  neces- 
sary to  sustain  life  and  ordained  that  in  the 
evolution  of  life  and  death  there  should  be  no 
destruction  of  elements.  Complex  com- 
pounds are  formed  by  the  union  of  these 
various  elements,  and  they  perform  their 
function  in  accordance  with  fixed  laws,  and 
finally  turn  back  in  the  form  of  gases,  vapors 
and  mineral  salts  to  start  anew  their  endless 
work  of  production. 

While  elements  may  be  indestructible, 
they  sometimes  stray,  some  become  lost 
and  often  many  are  misused.  Were  it  not 
for  such  losses,  nature's  store  of  plant  food 
would  not  be  diminished.  It  devolves  upon 
man,  therefore,  to  co-operate  with  nature  in  order,  first,  to  secure  from 
the  soil  the  full  benefit  of  its  fertility,  and,  second,  to  prevent  depletion. 
Most  virgin  soils  contain  a  goodly  amount  of  the  essential  inorganic 
elements,  and  in  water  and  air  we  find  the  four  great  basic  elements  in 
abundance,  namely,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbon.  Standing 
between  these  two  groups  of  elements,  we  have  the  man  we  call  the 
farmer,  who  is  the  active  djmamic  force  intended  by  the  Creator  to 
make  available  the  actual  and  potential  power  in  nature's  storehouse. 

We  find  in  the  soil  silica,  phosphorus,  potash,  lime,  magnesia,  iron, 
sulphur  and  other  elements  which  enter  into  the  economy  of  plant  growth. 
Water  is  composed  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

Three-fourths  of  the  atmosphere  is  composed  of  nitrogen.  Carbon 
is  found  in  combination  with  oxygen,  and  the  store  of  free  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  is  inexhaustible. 

When  these  various  elements  are  brought  together  under  the  right 
conditions  and  are  furnished  with  humus,  which  is  the  home  of  the 
laboratory  workers  of  the  soil,  then  plant  food  compounds  are  formed 
and  made  available. 

If  all  of  the  elements  and  compounds  which  go  to  make  up  vegetable 
growth  are  returned  to  the  soil  and  atmosphere,  there  could  be  no 


diminishing  of  fertility.  There  is,  however,  a  discrepancy  between  the 
amount  taken  from  the  soil  and  that  returned  which  may  finally  bring 
about  absolute  depletion  in  some  of  the  elements  unless  scientific 
methods  are  enforced  by  the  tillers  of  the  soil. 

The  farmer,  therefore,  is  confronted  with  these  two  problems:  First, 
to  make  available  plant  food  elements  which  exist  in  the  atmosphere 
and  in  the  soil,  and,  second,  to  return  to  the  soil  plant  food  and  guard 
against  wasting.  The  first  problem  involves  several  important  opera- 
tions, namely: 

(a)  Drainage  to  carry  off  surplus  water,  and  to  admit  atmospheric 
oxygen  to  the  seed-bed. 

(b)  A  well-plowed,  thoroughly-pulverized  and  compact  seed-bed. 

(c)  A  liberal  supply  of  live  humus. 

(d)  A  sufficient  quantity  of  lime  to  prevent  soil  acidity. 

(e)  Water  in  the  subsoil  in  quantities  to  supply  the  needs  of  growing 
plants  and  to  have  the  connection  between  the  bottom  of  the  seed-bed 
and  the  subsoils  in  such  a  physical  condition  that  capillary  attraction 
will  not  be  interfered  with. 

(f)  Rotation  of  crops. 

Sources  of  Plant  Food 

In  discussing  the  second  problem,  we  will  not  attempt  to  offer  any 
plan  to  maintain  the  original  plant  food  content  of  all  the  lands  of  the 
globe,  but  will  make  a  few  suggestions  with  the  view  of  maintaining  to 
a  high  degree  the  fertility  of  our  tillable  soils. 

How  can  we  prevent  the  store  of  plant  food  in  the  seed-bed  from 
becoming  less  and  less  with  the  removal  of  each  succeeding  crop? 
What  can  the  farmer  do? 

We  know  that  oxygen  is  necessary  to  make  combinations  or  com- 
pounds of  the  plant  food  elements. 

We  know  that  oxygen  exists  in  the  air  in  unlimited  quantities  and 
that  thorough  tillage  and  proper  drainage  will  place  it  where  it  is 
required. 

We  know  that  three-fourths  of  the  entire  atmosphere  is  composed  of 
nitrogen,  an  element  which  cannot  be  dispensed  with  in  plant  growth. 

We  also  know  that  the  legumes,  plants  which  can  be  grown  in  any 
latitude  where  vegetation  survives,  are  equipped  with  bacteria  upon  the 
roots  possessing  the  power  to  take  this  valuable  element  from  the 
atmosphere  and  deposit  it  in  the  soil. 

We  know  that  carbon-dioxide,  the  product  of  decomposed  animal 
and  vegetable  matter,  also  exists  in  the  atmosphere,  and  that  from  it  we 
can  secure  a  sufficient  amount  of  carbon  to  furnish  most  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  plant. 


We  know  that  in  the  evolution  of  the  creation  of  the  earth  that  there 
was  deposited  in  the  particles  of  rock,  which  through  disintegration 
have  become  the  substance  of  the  soil,  such  elements  as  potash,  sulphur, 
iron,  Ume,  magnesia,  sodium,  etc. 

We  also  know  that  through  some  mysterious  process,  phosphorus  was 
formed  and  that  in  all  soils  which  are  regarded  as  agricultural  lands,  it 
exists  in  varying  quantities  from  the  surface  down  through  the  under- 
lying strata,  which  are  called  subsoils. 

We  know  that  deep-rooting  plants,  such  as  the  legumes  and  others, 
through  their  roots,  which  reach  many  feet  down  into  those  subsoils, 
carry  with  them  water  and  air,  and  that  when  they  decay,  humus  is 
formed  which  combines  with  inorganic  elements,  and  the  compounds 
thus  formed  are  finally  brought  to  the  seed-bed,  in  a  soluble  form,  by 
capillary  attraction. 

We  know  that  the  supply  of  potash  is  practically  inexhaustible  in  most 
soils,  and  that  it  can  be  made  available  by  tillage  methods  and  the  appli- 
cation of  lime.  If  the  supply  of  phosphorus  or  potash  becomes  exhausted 
or  originally  was  deficient,  it  can  be  supplied  in  a  commercial  form. 

Nature  has  in  her  storehouse,  remote  from  our  tillable  lands,  vast 
beds  of  potash  salts,  and  in  regions  of  our  own  country  there  is  appar- 
ently an  inexhaustible  supply  of  phosphate  rock  containing  a  large  per 
cent  of  phosphorus  which  can  be  made  available  by  using  the  right 
methods.  By  guarding  against  unnecessary  waste  of  both  phosphorus 
and  potash,  the  supply  will  last  until  the  end  of  time. 

Lime,  a  substance  which  is  indispensable  to  all  agricultural  lands,  is 
found  in  abundance  in  nearly  every  section  of  our  country  at  a  cost 
within  the  reach  of  all.  Land  which  has  been  cropped  for  a  long  period 
of  years  becomes  sour  and  needs  lime. 

Another  source  of  supply  of  plant  food  is  in  the  excreta  from  human 
beings  and  animate  creatures  which  have  eaten  the  food.  About 
eighty  per  cent  of  the  plant  food  elements  required  to  make  any  of  the 
feeds  can  be  returned  to  the  soil  in  excrements. 

Again,  the  leaves  and  barks  from  trees  and  the  decaying  vegetation 
in  our  swamps  and  forests  which  are  formed  into  moulds,  are  all  rich  in 
plant  food  elements. 

In  the  Oriental  countries,  where  intensive  farming  methods  have  been 
practiced  for  thousands  of  years,  those  substances  are  all  utilized,  and 
through  them,  to  a  great  extent,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  maintained. 
The  sediment  in  pools,  lakes,  rivers  and  swamps  is  exceedingly  rich  in 
plant  food  elements,  and  when  necessity  demands  will  be  utilized  to 
enrich  our  tillable  soils. 

Wastes 

We  know  the  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  farmers  of  the  United 
States  is  responsible  for  an  enormous  waste  of  fertility.     Manure  piles 


are  unprotected,  organic  materials  are  not  husbanded,  decayed  animal 
matter  is  not  utilized,  fertility  is  often  lost  because  of  shallow  tillage, 
and  by  the  formation  of  ditches,  it  is  permitted  to  wash  away.  In  fact, 
millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  fertility  is  wasted  annually,  either  through 
percolation  or  by  being  washed  in  rivers,  lakes  and  seas. 

When  our  soils  were  new,  bristling  with  energy  and  fertility,  they 
produced  without  great  effort  more  than  enough  to  supply  our  needs. 
As  our  population  has  increased,  new  lands  have  been  cultivated  and 
new  pastures  utilized.  Unfortunately,  our  land  area  is  limited,  but 
there  seems  to  be  no  stay  in  the  increase  in  our  population;  hence,  the 
American  people  are  facing  a  problem  which  demands  their  earnest 
attention. 

Solution 

There  seems  to  be  but  one  solution  to  the  problem.  Production 
must  keep  pace  with  the  increase  in  our  population  if  the  nation  is  to 
survive  and  prosper.  The  cost  of  living  depends  upon  the  farmer's 
crops  and  flocks.  The  inexorable  law  of  supply  and  demand  regulates 
the  price,  and  that  law  knows  no  favorites  nor  can  it  be  repealed  or 
modified. 

The  responsibility  rests  with  the  farmer.  He  is  the  chosen  servant 
to  produce  from  the  soil  enough  to  sustain  the  living.  In  view  of  the 
fact,  however,  that  the  soil  has  been  producing  for  millions  of  years  and 
that  many  nations  have,  by  intensive  methods,  been  able  through  their 
farming  operations  to  keep  pace  with  the  increase  in  population,  we  are 
optimistic  enough  to  believe  that  by  imitating  their  methods  and  by 
applying  the  scientific  knowledge,  which  is  gradually  coming  to  us,  we 
can,  in  the  United  States,  so  manage  our  farming  operations  that  we 
will  be  able,  not  only  to  keep  pace  with  the  increase  in  our  population, 
but  to  produce  a  surplus  for  other  nations  of  the  world  for  many  genera- 
tions to  come. 

The  potential  power  of  our  soils  is  beyond  man's  comprehension. 
The  invisible  and  the  unknown  forces  which  have  evidently  been  instru- 
mental during  the  past  ages  in  production,  will,  in  time,  as  necessity 
demands,  become  playthings  in  the  farmer's  hands  as  are  nitrogen, 
oxygen  and  carbon  today. 

In  this  treatise  we  will  deal  only  with  the  practical  side  of  farming. 
We  will  emphasize  the  two  features,  namely,  stock-raising  and  tillage, 
which  are  inter-dependent,  and  will  insist  that  both  features  are  abso- 
lutely essential  to  profitable  farming. 

We  will  endeavor  to  show  that  to  till  the  land  and  not  return  to  the 
soil  the  manure  from  the  stock,  is  simply  mining,  not  farming,  and  each 
year  the  soil  is  depleted  of  its  fertility.- 

We  will  treat  of  the  seed-bed,  fertility,  seed  selection  and  cultivation 
of  the  growing  plants.     We  will  give  special  attention  to  drainage, 


ventilation  and  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  seed-bed.  We  will  also 
emphasize  the  benefits  of  raising  high-grade  or  pure-bred  stock  and 
feeding  a  balanced  ration,  at  the  same  time  will  not  overlook  the  benefits 
to  be  derived  from  giving  the  farm  animals  proper  care. 

We  will  not  only  give  our  own  experiences,  but  utilize  authentic 
experiments  and  demonstrations  made  by  state  agricultural  experi- 
mental stations,  departments  of  the  United  States  government,  and  the 
results  obtained  by  individuals  who  have  used  intensive  and  scientific 
methods  successfully. 


FORMATION  OF  SOIL 

THE  foundation  or  frame- work  of  soil  is  disintegrated  rock.  In  those 
particles  of  rock  are  found  essential  inorganic  elements  of  fertility. 
The  process  of  disintegration  began  millions  of  years  ago  and  will 
undoubtedly  continue  until  the  end. 

The  crumbling  or  disintegration  of  rock  is  caused  by  many  agencies, 
the  most  effective  ones  being: 

Atmosphere. 

Water. 

Changes  in  temperature. 

Growing  plants. 

Insects  and  earth  worms. 

The  Atmosphere 

causes  disintegration  and  changes  by  acting  chemically. .  Certain 
minerals,  through  oxidation,  are  transformed  into  more  soluble  sub- 
stances, such  as  the  carbonates,  which  are  easily  dissolved.  Carbon- 
dioxide  and  other  gases,  and  vapors  are  instrumental  in  bringing  about 
disintegration. 

Water 

plays  a  very  important  part  in  the  formation  of  soil  from  rock.  It 
acts  both  chemically  and  mechanically.  Water  absorbs  carbon-dioxide 
from  the  atmosphere.  The  acid  thus  absorbed  acts  effectively  on  rocks 
containing  lime  and  the  oxygen  combines  with  substances  not  yet 
freely  oxidized.  New  compounds  are  formed  which  in  turn  form 
others  when  they  come  in  contact  with  water  and  new  substances 
and  elements,  thereby  disintegrating  the  various  rock  formations. 
The  mechanical  action  of  water  is  very  marked.  Drops  of  rain 
falling  upon  rock  surfaces  dislodge  minute  particles,  and  running 
water  wears  away  rock  formation  very  rapidly.  The  erosion  is 
very  pronounced  in  ravines,  canyons  and  cataracts  where  the 
flow  is  rapid.     Glacial  action  during  past  ages  dislodged  rocks,  and 


were  not  only  instrumental  in  disintegrating  them,  but  played  an 
important  part  in  the  formation  of  the  contour  of  the  surface  of 
sections  of  the  earth. 

Changes  in  Temperature 

causing  contraction  and  expansion^  tend  to  crack  and  dislodge  rock. 

Plant  Roots 

which  either  grow  into  crevices  or  are  blown  or  washed  there,  form 
carbonic  acid  when  they  decay,  which  acts  upon  some  rock  formations, 
disintegrating  and  dissolving  them. 

Insects  and  Earth  Worms 

play  a  part  in  making  soil.  They  burrow  through  loams  and  soft  rock, 
admitting  air  and  water,  which  further  hastens  disintegration.  Micro- 
organisms on  the  surface  and  in  crevices  of  rock  residues  and  nitrifying 
organisms  furnish  nitrogen,  which  stimulate  the  growth  of  vegetation, 
hastening  disintegration. 

Briefly,  rock  disintegration  is  accomplished  by  the  combined  action 
of  water,  heat  and  cold,  air  and  other  gases,  vegetable  growth,  micro- 
organisms, insects,  earthworms,  chemical  elements  and  substances  all 
working  in  combination  both  mechanically  and  chemically. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOILS 

SOILS  are  classified  as  sedentary  and  transported. 
Sedentary  soils  are  those  which  remain  where  disintegration  took 
place.  There  may  be  residual  deposits,  namely,  gravels,  sands,  clays, 
etc.,  or  cumulose.  This  sub-class  includes  peat,  muck  and  swampy 
soils  made  so  by  the  accumulation  of  organic  matter,  both  by  growth 
and  decomposition. 

Transported  Soils 

are  called  colluVial,  alluvial,  aeolian  and  glacial  deposits.  These  soils, 
like  all  others,  are  composed  of  disintegrated  rock  and  organic  matter. 
They  are  transported  or  shifted  by  winds,  water,  drifts,  glaciers  and 
other  forces. 

Soils  are  further  classified  according  to  their  characteristics,  as  sand 
and  sandy  soils,  clays,  silt  and  loam. 

Sand 

is  disintegrated  rock,  the  particles  ranging  in  size  between  0.5  mm.  and 
0.05  mm.  in  diameter.     Sand  is  not  cohesive  nor  does  it  retain  moisture 

8 


long  if  exposed  to  the  sun  or  wind.  Sand  is  useless  for  agricultural 
purposes  unless  mixed  with  clay,  peat  or  large  quantities  of  organic 
matter. 

Clay 

Pure  clay  is  kaolin,  which  is  formed  by  the  disintegration  of  feldspar. 
Clay  as  found  in  soils  is  composed  of  silica,  feldspar,  limestone,  mica, 
kaolin  and  other  like  formations.  Particles  are  much  finer  than  sand, 
being  less  than  0.005  mm.  in  diameter. 

Clays  are  very  compact,  many  being  practically  impervious  to 
water.  Clay  soils  are  usually  cold  when  wet,  and  the  tempera- 
ture remains  lower  than  lighter  soils  in  the  same  field.  If  culti- 
vated while  wet,  they  become  puddled.  When  the  moisture 
evaporates,  they  contract,  crack  and  become  extremely  hard,  rendering 
cultivation  very  difficult. 

Silt 

is  composed  of  particles  which  vary  in  size  between  sand  and  clay.  The 
particles  being  smaller  and  lighter  than  sand  and  larger  and  heavier  than 
clay,  they  settle,  when  soil  is  roiled  in  a  stream  or  ditch,  on  top  of  sand. 
The  beds  of  irrigation  ditches  usually  have  an  accumulation  of  silt, 
especially  if  the  water  carries  soil  in  suspension.  Silt  soils  are  quite 
pervious  to  water,  and  usually,  they  are  very  fertile  when  they  carry 
organic  matter. 

Loam 

is  a  mixture  of  sand  and  clay.  If  clay  predominates,  it  is  called  a  clay 
loam;  if  the  amount  of  sand  exceeds  the  clay,  it  is  called  a  sandy  loam, 
and  if  organic  matter  exceeds  in  abundance,  it  is  called  black-sandy  or 
clay  loam,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Weight  of  Soils 

Soils  vary  in  weight  according  to  the  size  of  the  particles  and  the 
composition.  A  fine  sandy  clay  will  weigh  more  than  any  of  the  others 
mentioned.  Peaty  soils,  which  contain  a  large  amount  of  organic 
matter,  are  the  lightest.  The  more  organic  matter  soil  contains,  the 
more  water  it  will  absorb.  The  weight  of  soils  as  given  by  Snyder  is  as 
follows: 

Soil  Pounds  Per  Cubic  Foot 

Clay  Soil 70  to    75 

Fine  Sandy  Soil 95  to  110 

Loam  Soil  . 75  to    90 

Peaty  Soil    25  to    40 

Average  Prairie  Soil 75 

Uncultivated  Prairie  Soil 65 

9 


A  Deere  Model  Dairy  Farm,  Molina,  Illinois 


SOIL 


SOIL  is  the  substance  in  which  plants  grow.  Fertihty  or  plant  food 
is  composed  of  cornpounds  made  up  of  organic  and  inorganic  ele- 
ments. The  essential  inorganic  elements  are  found  in  varying  quanti- 
ties in  the  particles  of  disintegrated  rocks.  They  are  silica,  alumina, 
iron,  phosphorus,  lime,  sulphur,  magnesia,  soda  and  potash.  All  exist 
in  most  soils  in  great  abundance  except  potash  and  phosphorus.  Other 
elements  of  fertility  are  oxygen,  nitrogen,  carbon  and  hydrogen.  These 
elements  exist  in  the  atmosphere  in  inexhaustible  quantities  and  are 
utilized  by  the  growing  plants  in  a  greater  or  lesser  degree. 

It  must  be  understood  that  growing  plants  are  very  exacting  in  their 
requirements.  The  laws  governing  their  growth  will  permit  of  no 
radical  interference.  A  deficiency  of  any  one  element  will  be  reflected 
in  the  production,  and  an  excessive  amount  of  some  of  the  elements  will 
prove  even  more  disastrous  than  a  deficiency.  For  instance,  an  exces- 
sive amount  of  the  sodas  will  cause  alkali  poison. 

The  productiveness  of  soil  depends  upon  its  physical  condition,  its 
humus  content,  the  amount  and  availability  of  water  and  the  amount 
of  available  plant  food  it  contains.  Soils  differ  in  their  adaptability  to 
certain  crops,  a  matter  which  should  be  thoroughly  studied  by  the 
farmer.  In  this  particular,  soils  are  not  unlike  live-stock.  We  know 
that  some  cows  are  milk  producers,  other  varieties  are  useful  for  beef 
only.  Likewise,  we  have  draft  horses  and  roadsters.  So  it  is  with  the 
soil — some  fields  are  adapted  to  potato  raising,  others  to  sugar  beets, 
while  others  will  excel  in  grain  or  corn;  hence,  no  fast  rules  can  be  laid 
down  governing  the  adaptability  of  crops  to  certain  lands.  If  the 
farmer  will  make  some  careful  experiments,  he  will  be  able  to  plant 
crops  which  are  best  adapted  to  his  soil. 


HOW  TO  IMPROVE  THE  PHYSICAL 
CONDITION  OF  SOIL 

AN  ideal  soil  is  a  loam  containing  about  equal  amounts  of  sand  and 
^  clay.     Such  a  soil  readily  absorbs  moisture,  capillary  attraction  is 
perfected,  and  it  permits  of  free  circulation  of  air. 

Sandy  Soil 

can  be  improved,  first,  by  the  addition  of  clay,  the  amount  depending 
upon  the  fineness  of  the  sand;  second,  by  the  addition  of  peat  or  muck, 
and,  third,  by  mixing  with  it  barnyard  manures.  When  barnyard 
manure  is  mixed  with  sandy  soil,  it  should  be  well  rotted  and  thoroughly 
worked  into  the  soil  with  the  disc. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  a  sandy  soil  which  is  absolutely 
unproductive  for  agricultural  purposes,  will  produce  very  abundantly 
by  the  addition  of  manures.  The  amount  of  plant  food  required  to 
make  the  crop  being  greatly  in  excess  of  the  available  plant  food  in  the 
manure,  indicating  that  the  sand  contained  fertility,  but  valueless 
because  of  the  absence  of  organic  matter.  By  adding  peat  or  manure, 
sandy  soils  absorb  moisture  readily,  and  it  is  retained  much  longer  than 
if  the  organic  substances  were  not  added.  The  organic  matter  also 
tends  to  regulate  the  temperature  of  the  soil.  Where  the  subsoil  is  clay, 
sandy  soils  are  greatly  improved  by  plowing  deep  enough  to  bring  some 
of  the  clay  into  the  seed-bed  and  subsequently  applying  manure  or 
plowing  under  green  crops. 

Clay  Soil 

if  tilled  when  wet,  puddles,  and  when  the  moisture  evaporates,  it  con- 
tracts, cracks  and  becomes  so  hard  that  it  is  not  tillable.  By  the  addi- 
tion of  coarse  sand,  it  becomes  mellow  and  more  permeable  to  moisture. 
By  the  further  addition  of  peat  or  organic  matter  in  the  form  of  barn- 
yard manures,  it  is  made  mellow,  permeable,  does  not  puddle,  crack  or 
become  hard.  The  amount  of  peat  or  manures  to  add  depends  entirely 
upon  the  fineness  of  the  soil  particles  composing  the  clay.  Plowing 
under  green  crops  is  very  beneficial  to  both  clay  and  sandy  soils. 

Calcareous  Soil 

or  soil  in  which  lime  exists  in  great  quantities,  is  apt  to  be  coarse, 
thereby  hindering  capillary  attraction.  Such  a  soil  is  made  tillable 
and  productive  by  the  addition  of  organic  matter,  either  in  the  form  of 
peat,  muck  or  well-rotted  manures. 

Peaty  Soil 

is  improved  by  the  addition  of  clay  or  sand.     Because  this  soil  contains 

an  excessive  amount  of  nitrogen  and  organic  matter,  it  is  benefited  by 

the  application  of  caustic  lime. 

11 


ALKALI 

ALKALI  is  a  salt  or  a  combination  of  salts,  which,  if  existing  in  the  soil 
■  in  excessive  quantities,  destroys  it  for  agricultural  purposes.  A  very- 
small  per  cent  of  alkali  is  very  essential  to  plant  life;  in  fact,  soil  devoid 
of  this  salt  is  not  productive.  It  is  estimated  that  nearly  a  million  acres 
of  the  irrigated  lands  in  the  west  contain  enough  alkali  to  render  them 
very  unproductive  or  absolutely  worthless  for  farming  purposes. 

Alkali  salts  are  divided  into  two  classes,  namely,  white  alkali  and 
black  alkali. 

The  white  alkali  is  less  harmful  than  the  black.  The  principal  white 
alkalis  are  Glaubers  salts  (sodium  sulphate),  common  table  salt  (sodium 
chloride),  Epsom  salts  (magnesium  sulphate)  and  common  baking  soda 
(sodium  bicarbonate). 

The  black  alkali  is  salsoda  (sodium  carbonate). 

White  alkalis  either  existed  in  the  soil  before  it  was  cultivated,  or 
were  carried  there  by  irrigating  waters.  If  these  salts  exist  in  quanti- 
ties as  great  as  one  per  cent,  they  exert  a  deleterious  effect  upon  the 
plants;  however,  some  very  resistant  plants  thrive  where  as  much  as  two 
per  cent  of  alkali  exists  in  the  soil.  The  ability  of  a  plant  to  thrive  in  an 
alkali  soil  depends  upon  the  amount  of  water  holding  the  salt  in  solution 
and  the  location  of  the  salt.  Alkalis  are  carried  to  the  surface  by  water 
through  the  process  of  evaporation,  and  they  are  driven  down  by  the 
water  into  the  deeper  subsoils  when  it  is  applied  in  excessive  quantities. 
They  are  destructive  to  plants  when  on  or  near  the  surface,  but  when  in 
the  deeper  soil  in  solution,  they  are  less  harmful. 

Black  alkali  is  a  very  corroding  destructive  salt,  and  if  it  exists  in  the 
soil  to  the  extent  of  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent  or  more,  it  is  destructive 
to  plant  life. 

White  alkali  appears  in  a  thin  film  or  crust  on  the  surface. 

Soil  containing  black  alkali  has  black  spots  or  black  rings  on  the  surface, 
the  soil  is  black  and  puddled,  and  water  standing  on  the  surface  is  black, 

How  to  Remedy  Alkali  Soils 

White  alkali  can  be  removed  from  the  soil  by  washing  it  out  with 
water  either  by  irrigation  or  by  heavy  rains,  provided  underground 
drainage  is  supplied  to  carry  it  off. 

Black  alkali  can  be  remedied  by  the  application  of  gypsum  (land 
plaster).  If  several  applications  are  made,  the  black  alkali  is  neutral- 
ized and  transformed  into  a  white  salt  which  can  easily  be  washed  out. 

Black  alkali  without  the  use  of  gypsum,  however,  cannot  be  washed 
out  to  any  extent. 

Crops 

Certain  crops  are  adapted  to  soils  containing  different  amounts  of 
alkali. 

12 


Excessive 

Soils  which  contain  as  much  as  2.5  per  cent  of  alkah  are  regarded  as 
excessive,  and  will  produce  only  a  few  useful  plants.  Chief  among  these 
are  native  and  foreign  salt  bushes,  certain  native  grasses,  notably  salt 
grass  which  offers  a  very  inferior  pasture.  While  sugar  beets  can  be 
grown  in  the  presence  of  as  much  as  2.5  per  cent  of  alkali,  they  are  very 
small,  and  the  sugar  content  is  low. 

Very  Strong 

Soils  which  contain  from  1  to  1.5  per  cent  are  regarded  fairly  favor- 
able for  sugar  beets,  provided  an  abundance  of  organic  matter  is  used 
and  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  to  keep  the  alkali  in  the  deeper  soils. 
The  date  palm  is  the  only  fruit  tree  which  is  profitable  on  such  a  soil. 

Strong  Alkali 

Such  a  soil  contains  about  1  per  cent  of  salts.  A  fair  crop  of  sugar 
beets,  western  wheat  grass,  brome  grass  and  tall  meadow  oat  grass 
can  be  grown. 

A  Medium  Strong  Alkali 

containing  not  more  than  .8  per  cent,  will  grow  meadow  and  pasture 
grasses,  wheat  grass,  brome  grass,  rye  grass,  meadow  fesene,  sugar  beets 
and  common  fox-tail  millet.  It  will  also  produce  fair  crops  of  rape, 
kale  and  barley  hay. 

A    Medium  Alkali 

which  contains  .6  per  cent  or  less  of  salts,  will  grow  millet,  rape,  red- 
top,  timothy,  orchard  grass,  barley,  rye  and  asparagus  and  fair  crops  of 
milo,  kaffir  corn,  wheat,  oats,  emmer,  alfalfa,  field  peas,  vetch  and  flax. 
It  is  also  very  desirable  for  sugar  beets. 

Weak  Alkali 

containing  .4  per  cent  or  less  of  salts,  will  grow  all  kinds  of  truck, 
rapes,  sugar  beets,  alfalfa,  etc. 

Seeding 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  water  carries  alkali  down,  seed  should  be 
planted  just  after  rains  or  after  irrigating.  If  the  farmer  can  secure  a 
quick  tap  root  before  the  alkali  reaches  the  surface,  he  is  reasonably 
sure  of  a  good  crop.  The  reason  that  alfalfa  does  so  well  in  alkali  soil  is 
because  of  its  deep  tap  root  which  penetrates  far  below  the  alkali.  In 
irrigated  sections,  if  the  water  contains  a  per  cent  of  alkali,  the  farmer 
should  place  underground  tile  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  the  salts  in 
solution;  otherwise,  the  accumulation  will  increase  from  year  to  year, 
and,  finally,  the  soil  will  be  absolutely  worthless. 

13 


MODERN  FARM  METHODS 

Essential  Features  to  Be  Observed 

A  FARMER  should  have  two  important  objects  in  view,  namely: 
1.  To  produce  wealth  from  his  land  sufficient  to  compensate 
himself  and  family  for  their  labor  and  give  him  a  reasonable  interest  on 
the  value  of  his  investment. 

2.  To  till  the  land  and  manage  his  operations  so  that  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  will  not  become  exhausted. 

Haphazard  methods  and  careless  work  will  not  accomplish  those 
-results,  l)ut  systematic  management,  modern  methods  and  a  scientific 
knowledge  of  plant  and  animal  requirements,  will  surely  bring  success 
in  a  high  degree. 

Farming  is  a  profession  no  less  important  nor  less  difficult  to  master 
than  many  of  the  so-called  learned  professions,  and  the  man  who 
believes  that  farming  is  a  fool-proof  occupation  will  usually  make  an 
abject  failure  of  the  business. 

Two  Features 

must  be  observed,  namely,  stock-raising  and  crop-raising.  They  are 
inter-dependent;  they  lean  on  each  other,  and  neither  one  will  long 
endure  alone.  The  crop  consumes  plant  food  from  the  soil,  but  the 
supply  is  no  more  inexhaustible  than  the  farmer's  bank  account.  The 
soil  fertility  must  be  replenished  from  time  to  time,  and  it  must  be  stimu- 
lated to  activity;  otherwise,  the  soil  becomes  sick,  anaemic  and  unpro- 
ductive. Live-stock  should  consume  the  major  portion  of  the  product 
of  the  soil  in  order  that  many  of  the  organic  substances  essential  to 
make  inorganic  elements  (which  exist  in  most  soils  in  abundance) 
available,  may  be  returned  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  manures.  Also, 
eighty  per  cent  of  the  fertility  removed  by  the  crop  is  restored  to  the 
land,  if  the  manure  is  properly  preserved  and  applied. 

Stock-Raising 

Stock-raising  involves  features  requiring  knowledge  of  breeds,  means 
of  caring  for  animals,  and  the  science  of  feeding  them.  A  high-bred 
animal,  whether  a  beast  of  burden  or  for  meat  or  dairy  products,  is 
manifestly  far  superior  to  a  scrub.  A  well-bred  animal  requires  no 
more  feed  than  one  with  an  inferior  or  inbred  record,  and  the  production 
is  usually  more  profitable. 

The  difference  in  the  amount  of  feed  consumed  by  a  well-bred  dairy 
cow  and  a  poorly-bred  one  is  insignificant,  but  the  production  in  milk 
makes  one  very  profitable,  while  the  other  may  not  pay  for  the  feed 
consumed. 

The  science  of  feeding  is  of  even  more  importance.  To  obtain  the 
best  results,  the  ration  must  be  balanced ;  that  is,  nature's  requirements 

14 


should  be  provided.  Food  elements  that  make  fat,  heat  and  energy- 
are  called  carbohydrates,  but  they  do  not  promote  growth.  Growth 
is  made  by  feeding  nitrogenous  substances,  but  to  secure  a  perfect  and 
rapid  development,  the  right  proportions  of  both  must  be  given. 

Animals  are  no  exception  to  the  rules  governing  construction  in  other 
things.  If  one  is  building  a  house,  the  quantities  of  the  various  parts 
must  be  in  proportion,  if  the  structure  is  made  complete  and  durable. 
Even  the  laws  of  chemistry  are  no  less  exacting  than  the  laws  governing 
growth.  In  chemistry  we  find  that  the  law  of  combination  will  permit 
of  no  radical  interference.  To  illustrate,  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  and 
one  part  of  oxygen  will  make  pure  water,  but  equal  parts  will  not,  nor 
will  any  other  proportions  of  those  two  elements  make  that  very  neces- 
sary essential  to  life.  Oxygen  is  absolutely  necessary  to  sustain  life, 
and  will,  if  rightly  provided,  but  if  we  combine  three  volumes  of  oxygen 
with  one  each  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  we  form  nitric  acid,  and  no 
other  combination  will  make  that  fluid.  I  mention  these  facts  to 
impress  upon  the  farmer's  mind  the  necessity  of  knowing  the  require- 
ments of  his  stock  in  order  that  he  may  secure  the  best  possible  results 
in  his  feeding  operations,  for  nature's  laws  of  exactness  are  very  strict. 

Crop-Raising 

The  other  feature  of  modern  farming,  namely,  growing  crops,  involves 
four  distinct  steps  or  operations  and  several  sub-divisions  which  will  be 
briefly  referred  to  hereafter. 

I  want  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  my  readers  the  absolute  necessity 
of  faithfully  observing  each  one  of  the  operations  which  are : 

1.  The  seed-bed. 

2.  Fertility,  or  the  operations  necessary  to  prevent  exhaustion  of  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  and  methods  to  make  it  available. 

3.  Selection  and  breeding  of  seed. 

4.  Cultivation  of  the  growing  plant. 

These  operations  are  of  equal  importance,  and  a  neglect  of  any  one  of 
them  will  invariably  be  the  cause  of  a  deficient  harvest. 

The  Seed-Bed 

The  seed-bed  must  be  so  made  that  it  provides  for  each  and  all  of  the 
requirements  of  the  growing  plant.     The  requirements  are: 

1.  An  abundance  of  room. 

2.  Atmospheric  oxygen. 

3.  Water. 

4.  Humus. 

5.  Food. 

A  Roomy  Seed-Bed 

The  abundance,  energy  and  ability  of  pbnt  roots  depends  largely  on 
the  room  and  freedom  they  have  to  develop.     Roots  seek  the  course  of 

16 


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16 


Sun-Baked  After  a  Heavy  Rain.    An  Excellent  Condition  to  Lose  Moisture.    Siiould 
Be  Thoroughly  Disced  Before  Being  Plowed 

least  resistance,  especially  during  the  tender  age,  and  at  a  time  the  plant 
requires  the  most  assistance.  If  the  seed-bed  is  shallow,  the  feeding 
area  is  restricted  in  both  food  and  moisture.  Such  a  seed-bed  usually 
has  a  hard-pan  preventing,  not  only  the  penetration  of  tender  roots,  but 
stops  the  downward  passage  of  water  and  encourages  the  washing  away 
of  surface  soils  and  fertility  during  heavy  showers.  A  roomy  seed-bed 
serves  as  a  reservoir  to  catch  and  retain  water  until  it  percolates  into  the 
deeper  subsoil.  Hence,  for  many  reasons  the  seed-bed  should  be  deep, 
a  condition  which  can  be  accomplished  by  plowing  and  tilling  deep. 

Caution 

The  process  of  deepening  the  seed-bed  should  be  gradual,  for  the 
reason  that  subsoils  or  soils  not  rich  in  humus  are  not  productive,  but 
can  be  made  rich  by  adding  manure  with  each  plowing  or  by  turning 
under  a  green  crop  of  some  kind,  preferably  clover,  cow-pea  vines  or  soy 

Atmospheric  Oxygen 

This  gas  is  as  necessary  to  plant  roots  as  it  is  to  man  or  animals,  and  if 
it  does  not  exist  in  the  soil,  the  plant  will  perish.  Soil  particles  have 
irregular  surfaces,  preventing  a  close  contact.  This  condition  is  not 
accidental,  but  a  wise  provision  for  the  express  purpose  of  permitting 
the  circulation  of  air  and  the  passage  of  water  and  minute  hair-like 
roots.  The  spaces,  also,  permit  the  escape  of  noxious  gases,  the  result 
of  plant  root  excretions  and  organic  decomposition.  If  from  any  cause 
the  air  spaces  become  clogged,  the  phenomena  of  plant  life  is  stopped. 
If  the  soil  becomes  surcharged  with  water  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
seed-bed  is  saturated  with  water,  the  air  spaces  are  filled  and  the  air  is 
driven  out. 

Tile  drainage  or  ditches  will  remedy  the  condition.  If  the  excessive 
amount  of  water  in  the  surface  layer  of  soil  is  due  to  a  hard-pan,  which 

w 


prevents  it  from  moving  downward,  deep  plowing  or  a  subsoiler  will 
relieve  the  condition.  If  the  ground  is  naturally  low  and  soggy,  drain 
tile  is  the  surest  and  best  means  to  adopt,  for  the  reason  that  the  tile  not 
only  carry  off  water,  but  through  them  air  is  admitted.  Drain  tile 
always  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  seed-bed  and  usually  the 
increase  of  production  in  one  or  two  crops  will  pay  the  cost  of  the  tile. 

Water 

Water  is  indispensable  to  growing  crops,  and  how  to  control  the  sup- 
ply is  certainly  a  serious  question  with  the  farmer.  Too  much  or  too 
little  is  disastrous  to  the  growing  crop.  Proper  methods,  however,  will 
reduce  the  danger  of  damage  to  a  minimum.  An  over-abundance  can 
be  taken  care  of  by  ditches,  tile  and  deep  tillage,  but  in  sections  where 
the  annual  rainfall  is  abnormally  low,  the  problem  of  storing  a  sufficient 
amount  to  provide  for  the  crop  during  protracted  drouths  is  a  serious 
question.  To  make  the  operation  of  storing,  preventing  the  waste 
and  nature's  process  of  consuming  water  plain  to  the  farmer,  we  will 
offer  the  following  explanation : 

Soil  water  exists  in  three  forms — 

1.  Hydrostatic  or  gravitational  water. 

2.  Capillary  water. 

3.  Hygroscopic  water. 

Hydrostatic  Water 

Hydrostatic  water  is  the  water  that  falls  on  the  surface 
from  rains  or  by  irrigation.  It  gravitates  into  the  deeper 
subsoils  through  cracks,  worm  holes  and  through  airspaces 
between  the  particles  of  soil.  If  the  soil  is  compact  and 
the  movement  slow,  the  air  spaces  will  become  filled,  and 
if  the  congestion  remains  too  long,  the  plants  will  die,  as 
is  often  seen  in  fields  of  grain,  or  any  crop  where  water 
has  stood  for  a  few  days  in  a  low  place. 


Capillary  Water 

Capillary  water  is  the  moisture  that  sustains  the  plant.  The  water  is 
first  stored  in  the  deeper  subsoils  and  by  nature's  process,  called  capil- 
lary attraction,  it  moves  upward,  passing  from  soil  particle  to  soil  par- 
ticle, until  it  reaches  the  surface,  where  it  is  taken  up  by  plant  roots  to 
sustain  the  plant,  or  it  is  lost  by  evaporation.  This  process  is  perfect  if 
the  seed-bed  is  so  made  that  the  particles  of  soil  are  in  close  proximity 
and  at  the  same  time  minute  air  spaces  exist.  If,  however,  the  air 
spaces  are  so  large  that  the  particles  of  soil  are  not  in  close  contact, 
the  movement  of  water  stops. 

Two  things  will  stop  the  movement  of  capillary  water,  and  it  is  up  to 
the  farmer  to  so  till  his  soil  that  such  conditions  do  not  exist.     They  are : 

1.  Surface  trash,  such  as  weeds,  stubble,  corn-stalks  or  coarse 
manure  turned  under. 

2,  Lumps  in  the  body  or  on  the  bottom  of  the  seed-bed. 

Trash  turned  under  is  responsible  for  more  crop  failures  or  short 
crops,  especially  dry  years,  than  all  other  causes  together.  The  trash 
turned  under  prevents  a  compact  soil  contact  between  the  furrow  slice 
and  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  The  result  is,  large  air  spaces,  and  when 
the  capillary  water  reaches  the  break,  it  stops,  and  the  seed-bed  dries 
out. 

Lumps  in  the  seed-bed  produce  practically  the  same  condition.  There 
is  but  one  good  sure  remedy,  and  that  is,  disc  all  the  trash  well  into  the 
ground  before  it  is  plowed,  and  disc  the  ground  thoroughly  after  it  is 
plowed  and  in  semi-arid  regions,  make  the  seed-bed  more  compact  by 
using  a  sub-surface  packer. 

Mr.  Farmer!  The  disc  harrow  is  always  a  safe  insurance  policy 
against  loss,  and  whether  you  farm  in  a  humid  section  or  in  the  semi- 
arid  regions,  you  cannot  afford  to  ignore  discing  before  and  after  plow- 
ing. By  doing  so  you  make  available  soil  water  regardless  of  drouths, 
and  you  increase  the  feeding  area  of  plant  roots  by  pulverizing  the 
lumps. 

Hygroscopic  Water 

Hygroscopic  water,  or  vapor  water,  is  the  moisture  that  exists  in  the 
air.  When  air  enters  the  soil,  the  moisture  adheres  to  the  soil  particles. 
This  moisture  is  of  little  value  in  dissolving  plant  food  elements,  but 
does  in  a  measure  stimulate  plants  in  dry  regions. 

Preventing  Loss 

Moisture  is  conserved  or  prevented  from  escaping  through  surface 
cracks  and  insect  holes  by  maintaining  a  soil  mulch  blanket  on  the  sur- 
face. This  can  be  done  in  corn  by  running  a  mulch  harrow  between  the 
rows  or  by  using  a  surface  cultivator.     The  mulch  should  be  formed  as 

19 


soon  as  the  ground  begins  to  dry  or  bake  after  rains.  Unless  the  farmer 
is  watchful,  one  or  more  inches  of  water  will  escape  during  a  single  hot, 
windy  day. 

In  grain  fields  the  mulch  can  be  formed  either  with  a  harrow  or  corru- 
gated roller.  The  harrow  gives  the  best  results  in  hard  ground  where 
the  roots  are  deep,  but  if  the  soil  is  loose,  the  corrugated  roller  forms  a 
retaining  mulch  and  at  the  same  time  packs  the  soil  about  the  grain 
roots.  Either  implement  can  be  used  to  good  profit  even  when  the 
grain  is  beginning  to  joint. 

Humus 

When  organic  matter  becomes  thoroughly  rotted  and  combines  with 
chemical  elements  in  the  soil,  it  is  called  humus.  Indirectly,  it  is  an 
important  factor  in  fertility;  in  fact,  soil  devoid  of  humus  is  practically 
barren.  Humus  increases  the  moisture-absorbing  ability  of  soil  to  a 
very  marked  degree  and  exerts  a  decided  influence  on  the  temperature 
of  the  ground.  Barnyard  manure  is  the  best  source  of  humus,  although 
green  crops  plowed  under  are  excellent. 

Fertility  or  Plant  Food 

Plants  require  certain  specific  ingredients  in  the  right  quantities  if  a 
rapid  growth  and  an  abundant  production  is  secured.  An  unbalanced 
plant  food  ration  proves  as  disastrous  to  the  growing  plant  as  an  unbal- 
anced food  ration  does  to  the  animal.  Hence,  the  farmer  should  know 
three  things  pertaining  to  feeding  plants,  and  he  can  secure  that  infor- 
mation by  studying  and  experimenting. 

1.  He  should  know  the  requirements  of  plants. 

2.  He  should  know  the  quantity  of  each  element  or  substance  neces- 
sary to  secure  the  best  results. 

3.  He  should  know  how  to  till  his  land  and  manage  the  operations  of 
the  farm  so  as  to  utilize  and  make  available  what  nature  has  provided 
in  a  crude  form. 

Soil  is  composed  of  disintegrated  rocks.  Rocks  are  composed  of 
silica,  alumina,  lime,  iron,  magnesia,  soda,  potash,  phosphorus  and  sul- 
phur. In  those  substances  we  have  the  basic  elements  of  fertility.  To 
make  them  available  plant  food  compounds,  we  must  have  nitrogen, 
oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbon-dioxide.  Oxygen  exists  in  the  air  in 
abundance.  Hydrogen  composes  two-thirds  of  the  volume  of  water. 
Three-fourths  of  the  atmosphere  is  composed  of  nitrogen,  and  carbon- 
dioxide  is  the  result  of  decomposition  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter. 
The  whole  layout  is  fine,  and  it  is  up  to  the  farmer  to  convert  them  into 
useful  plant  food. 

Can  it  be  done?  Certainly  it  can,  and  that  too  by  any  intelligent 
farmer  if  he  will  use  his  good  judgment  and  apply  means  and  methods 
that  are  at  his  disposal.     Nature's  generosity  is  of  little  use,  however,  if 

20 


man  neglects  his  part.  The  factory  needs  steel.  How  is  it  secured? 
Iron  ore  is  buried  deep  in  the  mountain,  coal  is  hidden  below  the  sur- 
face, lime-rock  forms  a  portion  of  the  crust  of  the  globe,  but  when 
brought  together  in  the  right  proportion  in  the  blast  furnace,  iron  is 
reduced  to  an  available  form  for  another  process,  and  so  on  until  the 
product  is  completed.  Without  man's  interven- 
tion, the  component  elements  that  are  finally 
resolved  into  a  cambric  needle  would  sleep  on 
until  the  last  day  of  eter- 
V  nity.     Thus  it  is  with  the 

1  i        story    of   the   fertility   of 
the  soil. 


n 


A  Deep  Seed-Bed 
(Well  Ventilated  1 


Medium  Seed-Bed 

[Partly  Ventilated] 


Shallow  Seed-Bed 

[Not  Ventilated] 


The  Above  Illustrates  the  Great  Value  of  a  Thoroughly-Made  Deep  Seed-Bed 


The  story  of  the  many  complex  changes  and  combinations  that  take 
place  between  the  elements  and  substances  is  too  confusing  for  the  busy 
farmer  to  master.  He  is  interested  only  in  what  to  do  to  bring  about 
the  best  results. 

Most  soil  contains  an  abundance  of  potassium,  but  it  may  be  locked 
up  in  particles  of  granite,  feldspar,  alumina  or  clay,  but  it  is  made  avail- 
able by  applying  powdered  lime-rock  to  the  soil. 

Phosphorus  may  exist  in  abundance,  but  is  not  in  the  right  form  to 
use  until  it  has  been  transformed  into  phosphoric  acid  by  the  action  of 
acids  resulting  from  the  decaying  of  manures  or  organic  materials  of 
some  kind  or  by  the  action  of  other  acids. 

Elements  may  exist  in  abundance,  but  are  not  made  into  compounds 
to  be  used  by  plants  until  the  various  elements  are  brought  together  by 
stirring  and  tilling  the  soil,  thereby  changing  the  position  of  the  soil 
particles  containing  the  chemicals. 


21 


Converting  and  rectifying  bacteria  may  be  absent  or  dormant  for 
lack  of  oxygen  or  because  of  an  acid  soil.  Lime  neutralizes  acid  soil, 
and  tile  and  tillage  ventilate  it.  If  nitrogen  is  lacking,  it  can  be  sup- 
plied by  planting  clover,  alfalfa,  cow  peas  or  soy  beans. 

Water  is  an  essential  factor  in  forming  plant  food  compounds,  and  its 
presence  in  sufficient  quantities  depends  upon  the  methods  used  by  the 
farmer.  In  short,  a  sweet  soil  well  stocked  with  air,  water  and  manure, 
and  thoroughly  tilled,  will  rarely  fail  to  produce  abundant  crops. 

Rotation 

A  well-arranged  system  of  rotation  of  crops  is  a  splendid  means  of 
assistance  in  keeping  the  soil  rich  in  some  plant  food  and  in  a  most 
excellent  physical  condition. 

We  know  that  if  land  is  cropped  year  after  year  with  the  same  kind  of 
crop  that  each  succeeding  year  the  crop  is  less.  We  also  know  that  if 
crops  are  rotated,  that  a  greater  yield  is  made.  The  farmer  naturally 
inquires  why  there  is  such  a  variation  between  continuous  cropping  and 
the  results  of  a  system  of  rotation. 

While  the  same  chemical  elements  enter  into  all  farm  crops,  they  differ 
greatly  in  the  quantities  the  various  ones  require.  For  instance,  a 
grain  crop  requires  less  potash  than  clover,  potatoes  or  root  crops;  oats 
take  more  potash  from  the  soil  than  wheat  or  corn;  likewise,  clover 
requires  more  phosphorus  than  grain  crops.  The  requirements  of 
wheat,  for  instance  are  the  same  each  year.  Each  crop  calls  for  just 
so  much  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potash.  The  roots  of  each  crop 
penetrate  the  earth  to  a  certain  depth,  taking  plant  food  in  the  same 
ratio  and  from  the  same  strata  of  soil  each  year. 

Clover  has  different  habits  than  corn,  grain  or  roots.  The  roots 
penetrate  deep  and  their  requirements  are  different.  Clover,  like  other 
legumes,  consumes  nitrogen,  but  gathers  it  from  the  air  and  deposits  it 
in  the  soil,  leaving  the  soil  richer  in  that  plant  food  element  than  it  was 
before  the  crop  was  planted.  The  deep  roots  decay,  forming  humus 
several  feet  deep  and  make  available  plant  food  beyond  the  reach  of 
many  grain  plants.  The  decaying  roots  place  the  soil  in  excellent 
physical  condition  and  hidden  plant  food  thus  formed  is  brought  to  the 
seed-bed  by  capillary  water  and  is  consumed  by  succeeding  crops. 

It  is  erroneous  to  believe  that  all  the  plant  food  exists  in  what  we  term 
the  "seed-bed" — that  is,  the  first  six  or  eight  inches  of  soil.  Fertility 
extends  many  feet  down  and  it  can  be  utilized  by  resorting  to  a  common 
sense  rotation  and  thorough  tillage. 

How  Plants  Feed 

Plant  food  in  a  soluble  state  forms  an  envelope  around  each  particle  of 
soil,  and  is  taken  up  by  root  hairs  and  carried  into  the  plant.  Carbon 
dioxide  from  the  air  is  breathed  into  the  plant  through  air  valves  in  the 

22 


leaves.  The  oxygen  is  separated  from  the  carbon  and  passes  out  as  free 
oxygen  and  the  carbon  unites  with  elements  that  have  come  from  the 
soil  to  form  starch,  sugar,  etc.;  therefore,  it  is  very  apparent  in  view  of 
the  phenomena  of  plant  life,  that  the  seed  must  throw  out  holding  roots 
and  a  stem  above  ground  far  enough  to  secure  carbon-dioxide  from  the 
air  before  plant  food  in  the  soil  can  be  utilized;  hence,  the  great  necessity 
of  planting  seed  that  possesses  strong  vitality.  If  seed  has  been  heated 
in  the  stack  or  bin,  cut  green  or  has  been  subjected  to  inclem.ent  condi- 
tions, it  will  be  weak  and  anaemic  and  the  stunted  early  growth  will  be 
reflected  through  the  entire  life  of  the  plant. 

Seed 

It  has  been  repeatedly  demonstrated  that  plump,  healthy  grain 
will  yield  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent  more  than  seed 
ungraded.  Corn  intended  for  seed  should  be  picked  when  ripe, 
thoroughly  dried  and  stored  in  a  well-ventilated  seed  house.  If 
corn  absorbs  moisture  or  freezes  and  thaws,  its  germinating  strength 
is  greatly  weakened. 

It  is  practically  useless  to  place  seed  in  the  ground  when  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  ground  is  below  forty-five  degrees,  although  it  will  germinate 
very  feebly  at  forty-one  degrees. 

Again,  seed  is  influenced  by  heredity.  Breed  and  strains  are 
as  marked  in  seed  as  in  animals;  hence,  the  advantage  of  secur- 
ing well-bred  seed  of  a  good  strain.  Corn  is  especially  suscepti- 
ble to  hereditary  influence.  Inbred  seed,  or  seed  fertilized  by 
pollen  from  barren  stalks  or  sucker  stalks,  will  in  a  great  measure 
produce  its  kind. 

Cultivation  of  Plants 

Plants  are  cultivated  for  three  purposes,  namely: 

1.  To  remove  weeds. 

2.  To  keep  the  surface  in  good  tilth. 

8.  To  maintain  a  surface  mulch  for  the  purpose  of  conserving 
moisture. 

Conditions  should  govern  the  farmer  as  to  the  nature,  frequency  and 
depth  of  cultivation.  Growing  grains  may  be  harrowed  or  rolled.  If 
the  soil  is  baked  and  weedy,  harrowing  is  beneficial.  If  the  soil  is  loose, 
a  roller,  either  corrugated  or  smooth,  closes  cracks,  thereby  preventing 
the  escape  of  moisture  and  at  the  same  time  packs  the  loose  soil  around 
the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Hoed  crops  of  all  kinds  should  be  lightly  harrowed  before  and  after 
the  plant  is  up.  Deep  cultivation  of  corn  is  permitted  until  the  roots 
are  in  danger  of  being  pruned.  After  corn  or  potatoes  are  eight  or  ten 
inches  high,  every  deep  cultivation  lessens  the  crop.  I  will  venture  the 
assertion  that  the  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  is  lessened  each  year 

23 


fifteen  per  cent  because  of  the  almost  universal  practice  of  deep  cultiva- 
tion after  the  plant  is  ten  or  twelve  inches  high  or  after  the  roots  have 
spread  to  the  point  where  they  can  be  cut  by  a  cultivator. 


PLOWING 


WHY  We  Plow,"  "When  to  Plow,"  "How  to  Plow,  "and  "The  Kind 
of  Plow  to  Use,  "are  questions  which  deserve  more  than  a  passing 
notice.  Beyond  question,  haphazard  plowing  is  responsible  for  more 
poor  crops  than  any  other  operation  in  farming.  Hence,  we  feel  that 
the  subject  should  receive  very  careful  consideration. 

Why  We  Plow 

Primarily,  we  plow  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  seed-bed  and  turning 
under  trash.  Plowing  should  also  thoroughly  pulverize  and  aerate  the 
soil.  We  pulverize  in  order  to  make  available  plant  food  which  envel- 
opes each  soil  particle.  We  aerate  it  in  order  that  the  soil  may  be  thor- 
oughly oxidized,  a  condition  necessary  to  the  healthy  maintenance  of 
soil  bacteria.  We  plow  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  ability  of  soil 
to  absorb  moisture. 

When  to  Plow 

depends  entirely  upon  the  kind,  character  and  condition  of  the  soil  and 
subsoil.  No  fixed  rules  can  be  laid  down  to  govern  all  cases.  The 
farmer  should  know  his  soil  and  study  results.  If  clay  soils  are  plowed 
when  wet  and  stirred  or  cultivated  while  in  that  condition,  they  become 
puddled  and  no  amount  of  cultivation  will  pulverize  the  lumps.  If  clay 
is  plowed  while  wet  and  exposed  to  freezing  and  not  stirred  until  it  is 
dried  out,  it  is  mellow  and  of  good  tilth.  Clay  soils  or  soils  where  the 
subsoil  is  clay  and  a  portion  of  it  is  brought  to  the  surface,  should  be 
plowed  in  the  fall  and  left  in  a  roughened  state  until  the  lumps  have 
crumbled  in  the  spring  after  the  frost  has  gone  out;  in  fact,  all  heavy 
soils  are  in  a  better  physical  and  chemical  condition  if  plowed  in  the  fall 
and  left  unmolested  until  spring  and  not  tilled  until  the  danger  of  pud- 
dling is  past. 

If  thin  clay  soils  are  plowed  in  the  spring  they  should  not  be  tilled 
until  they  have  dried.  If  after  clay  soils  are  plowed  while  in  a  wet  con- 
dition, a  quantity  of  gypsum  or  lime  is  spread  over  the  plowed  surface, 
a  part  of  the  danger  of  puddling  is  obviated.  Light,  sandy  soils  and 
light  loams  can  be  plowed  at  any  time  with  safety. 

How  to  Plow 

is  another  important  question.  As  a  general  rule,  unless  the  ground  is 
very  sandy,  it  is  advisable  to  turn  the  ridge  furrow.     A  ridge  furrow  is 

24 


better  aerated;  that  is,  the  oxidization  is  more  complete.  It  is  also  in 
condition  to  absorb  water  more  readily,  and  by  using  a  disc  harrow  or 
cultivator,  it  is  easily  pulverized. 

The  Depth  to  Plow 

is  a  question  which  deserves  very  careful  consideration.  Too  often  the 
farmer  is  guided  by  the  recommendation  of  an  enthusiast  who  does  not 
appreciate  the  fact  that  universal  deep  plowing  is  not  only  apt  to 
diminish  the  crop,  but  in  some  instances  may  make  the  soil  sterile  for  a 
number  of  years. 

In  discussing  this  matter,  we  will  answer  the  all-important  question, 
"Is  deep  plowing  advisable?"  by  saying  "Yes"  and  "No." 

The  depth  to  till,  or,  rather,  to  plow  or  use  the  subsoiler,  depends 
entirely  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil,  the  length  of  time  the 
land  has  been  cultivated,  and  the  depth  of  the  soil.  To  recklessly 
advocate  deep  tillage  is  nothing  less  than  criminal.  The  farmer  should 
understand  the  value  of  humus,  the  phenomena  of  plant  life  and  nature's 
process  of  supplying  plant  roots  with  water,  before  he  ventures  too  far. 
To  universally  advocate  deep  plowing  would  be  as  inconsistent  as  advo- 
cating the  growing  of  cotton  or  rice  in  the  northern  states. 

In  order  to  make  this  proposition  plain,  we  will  first  note  the  chemical 
requirements  of  the  plant;  second,  the  kind  of  soil  which  will  permit  of 
deep  tillage;  third,  the  benefits  of  deep  tillage  in  soils  where  conditions 
are  admissible,  and  the  type  of  implements  adapted  to  successful  deep 
tillage. 


New  Deere  Light-Draft  Gang  ..  Stubble  and  Breaker  Bottoms 

Humus  or  organic  matter  is  absolutely  essential  to  plant  life.  Humus 
is  decayed  vegetable  and  animal  matter.  It  is  found  in  the  top  layer 
of  soil  and  varies  in  depth  from  an  inch  to  several  feet.     Humus  in 

26 


virgin  soil  is  formed  from  the  natural  growth  and  decay  of  vegetation 
during  the  past  ages.  In  cultivated  soils  it  is  maintained  and  can  be 
increased  by  the  application  of  barnyard  manures  and  by  plowing 
under  green  crops  or  any  vegetable  growth. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  cropping  lessens  the  amount  of 
humus  in  soil,  and  by  continued  use,  that  which  is  not  consumed  by 
being  made  into  plant  food  compounds,  in  a  measure,  becomes  inactive. 

The  following  table  given  by  Snyder  shows  the  influence  of  different 
systems  of  farming  upon  the  humus  content  and  other  properties  of  the 
soil: 


Cultivated  35  years.  Rota- 
tion of  crops  and  manure; 
high  state   of   productive- 
ness 

Originally   same    as    No.    1. 
Continuous  grain    cropping 
for  35  years ;  low  state  of  pro- 
ductiveness 

Weight  per  cu.  foot, 
pounds  _ 

70. 

72. 

Humus,  per  cent 

3.32 

1.80 

Nitrogen,  per  cent 

0.30 

0.16 

Phosphoric  acid  com- 
bined with  humus, 
per  cent 

0.04 

0.01 

Water-holding  capac- 
ity, per  cent 

48. 

39. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  table  that,  as  the  humus  con- 
tent decreased,  the  weight  of  the  soil  increased,  and  that  with  the 
decrease  in  humus,  there  was  a  corresponding  decrease  in  nitrogen  and 
phosphoric  acid.  The  decrease  in  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the 
soil  is  also  marked,  indicating  the  necessity  of  maintaining  an  abun- 
dance of  live  humus  in  the  seed-bed. 

Humus  or  organic  matter  is  the  main  immediate  source  of  nitrogen  in 
the  soil.  Nitrogen-fixing  bacteria,  which  have  the  power  to  gather 
nitrogen  from  the  air,  require  organic  matter  in  some  form.  Productive 
soil  contains  countless  millions  of  living  forms  which  may  be  properly 
called  soil  laboratory  workers.  These  living  organisms  flourish  on  the 
organic  matter  forming  and  transforming  both  organic  and  inorganic 
elements  into  plant  food  compounds.  Upon  the  number  and  activity 
of  these  organisms  depend  the  amount  of  available  fertility.  If  humus 
or  organic  matter  is  absent  or  deficient,  a  corresponding  deficiency 
is  reflected  in  the  crop.  The  availability  of  other  elements,  such  as 
potash  and  phosphorus,  also  depends  upon  the  nature  and  amount  of 
the  humus  in  the  soil.  Again,  humus  increases  the  absorbing  and 
retaining  qualities  of  moisture  in  the  soil.  Humus,  also,  in  a  measure, 
regulates  the  temperature  of  the  soil;  besides,  it  improves  the  physical 
condition  to  a  marked  degree. 


Recognizing  the  fact  that  the  seed-bed  is  the  home  of  the  plant  and 
that  from  the  seed-bed  the  plant  receives  its  food,  it  stands  to  reason 
that  it  must  contain  humus  in  abundance,  if  the  plant  is  supplied  with 
food;  hence,  in  plowing,  great  care  should  be  exercised  in  gauging  the 
depth,  for  we  know  that  the  subsoil  is  deficient  in  humus  and  that  if  it  is 
brought  to  the  surface  in  great  quantities,  the  fertility  of  the  seed-bed  is 
materially  diluted  or  weakened;  therefore,  in  our  efforts  to  secure  a 
greater  feeding  area  for  the  plant  roots  by  plowing  deep,  we  are  sure  to 
do  harm  unless  the  depth  is  increased  gradually  and  as  each  slice  of 
new  soil  is  brought  to  the  surface,  organic  matter,  preferably  barnyard 
manure,  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  it.  This,  however,  can  be  prevented 
by  using  the  right  type  of  plow  which  will  be  referred  to  later.  By  grad- 
ually increasing  the  seed-bed  one-half  inch  each  year  and  keeping  in 
mind  the  absolute  necessity  of  supplying  humus  in  sufficient  quantities 
for  the  new  soil  and  to  maintain  the  required  content  of  the  old  soil,  the 
farmer  can,  with  no  danger  of  impairing  his  crop,  in  a  few  years  attain  a 
depth  of  ten,  twelve  or  even  fourteen  inches. 

Do  Not  Till  Deep 

If  the  subsoil  is  sand  or  gravel,  it  is  not  advisable  to  bring  it  to  the 
surface  nor  plow  too  near  that  formation.  Sand  or  gravel  will  not 
retain  water  in  suspension;  hence,  in  such  soils  it  is  better  to  form,  as  far 
as  possible,  a  compact  plow  sole  which  will,  in  a  measure,  prevent  the 
percolation  of  rainfall. 

Sandy  Soils 

In  sandy  soils,  deep  plowing  is  admissible  if  an  abundance  of  humus 
or  organic  matter  is  provided;  otherwise,  the  water  will  percolate  below 
the  reach  of  the  roots,  carrying  with  it  fertility. 

The  deeper  a  sandy  soil  can  be  cultivated,  providing  an  abundance  of 
organic  matter  is  furnished,  the  more  certain  is  the  soil  to  maintain  a 
sufficient  amount  of  water  to  mature  the  plant. 

Virgin  Soils 

Virgin  soils  should  not  be  plowed  below  the  line  of  humus.  However, 
subsequent  plowing  can  be  increased  in  depth  the  same  as  in  older  culti- 
vated lands  provided  organic  matter  is  supplied. 

Benefits  of  Deep  Tillage 

The  benefits  of  deep  tillage  are  many,  provided  all  of  the  requirements 
heretofore  mentioned  have  been  complied  with. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  plant  roots  require  room.  Soil  bacteria,  which 
perform  the  function  of  converting  elements  into  compounds,  require  air. 

Plants  require  food  and  most  of  it  is  secured  from  the  seed-bed,  and 
plants  require  water;  hence,  to  meet  all  of  these  requirements,  the  seed- 
bed should  be  deep,  of  good  tilth  and  in  a  good  sanitary  condition. 

27 


Roots  Require  Room 

Plant  roots  require  room.  The  initial  roots  of  the  plant  being  fragile, 
they  naturally  seek  the  course  of  least  resistance.  If  the  seed-bed  is 
shallow,  they  remain  near  the  surface  where  they  are  apt  to  suffer  for 
moisture  in  case  of  drouth,  but  if  the  seed-bed  is  deep  and  mellow,  they 
take  their  natural  course  which  is  downward,  and  when  they  reach  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow,  they  have  strength  and  stability  to  penetrate  the 
more  compact  subsoils  where  they  secure  moisture,  and,  in  some 
instances,  plant  food. 

Air 

Soil  bacteria  being  aerobic,  or,  in  other  words,  oxygen-consuming 
organisms,  the  seed-bed  should  be  well  aerated,  a  condition  which  can 
be  attained  by  deep  and  thorough  tillage.  In  some  instances  drain  tile 
are  necessary  to  facilitate  the  circulation  of  atmospheric  oxygen  through 
the  soil,  but  if  the  water  line  is  not  too  near  the  surface,  deep  plowing 
serves  the  purpose. 

Plant  Food 

A  deep  seed-bed  well  stocked  with  organic  matter,  necessarily  will 
maintain  more  of  the  soil  organisms  than  a  shallow  one.  The  greater 
the  number  of  bacteria  and  the  more  active  they  are,  the  more  nitrogen 
will  exist  and  the  more  inorganic  plant  food  elements  will  be  made 
soluble. 

Water 

The  amount  of  available  moisture  depends,  to  a  gi'eat  extent,  upon 
the  depth  and  tilth  of  the  seed-bed.  If  the  seed-bed  is  shallow,  prima- 
rily it  does  not  absorb  great  quantities  of  water,  and  in  case  of  drouth, 
it  dries  out  readily.  If  it  is  deep,  mellow  and  spongy,  it  acts  as  a  sur- 
face reservoir  to  absorb  and  retain  heavy  downpours  of  rain  until  the 
surplus  can  percolate  into  the  storehouse  below.  If  the  seed-bed  is 
shallow,  the  soil  is  liable  to  wash  away  during  heavy  rains. 

Soil  Which  Admits  of  Deep  Plowing 

In  some  sections  of  our  country  where  the  soil  is  rich  in  humus,  which 
is  indicated  by  the  black  color,  it  is  safe,  after  the  first  plowing,  to  till 
deep,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  production  will  be  in  keeping  with  the  depth 
the  ground*  is  tilled.  Rough,  heavy  clay  soils  should  not  only  be  plowed 
deep,  but  plowed  often.  If  such  soils  can  be  plowed  twice  or  three 
times  for  one  crop,  the  physical  condition  is  greatly  improved,  oxidiza- 
tion is  more  perfect,  and  the  permeability  is  increased ;  the  farmer  keep- 
ing in  mind,  of  course,  the  necessity  of  furnishing  organic  matter. 
The  arguments,  based  upon  experience  in  favor  of  deep  tillage  when 
the  laws  governing  plant  growth  and  plant  food  chemistry  are 
not  violated,  are   so  apparent  the  farmer  cannot   afford    to    ignore 

28 


the  benefits  to   be  derived   from   making   a   thorough   investigation 
of  all  conditions  heretofore  mentioned  and  govern  himself  accordingly. 

Deep  Plowing  Without  Bringing  Subsoil  to  the  Surface 

The  danger  of  bringing  subsoil  to  the  surface  can  be  prevented  and 
many  of  the  benefits  of  deep  plowing  gained,  by  using  a  plow  which 
thoroughly  pulverizes  the  bottom  half  of  the  furrow  slice,  but  does  not 

place  the  subsoil  on  top 
of  the  surface  soil  which 
contains  humus.  This 
plow  has  a  broad  share 
and  the  moldboard  is 
very  narrow  at  the  point 
where  it  joins  the  share, 
but  widens  gradually  at 
the  upper  end.  The 
share  loosens  and  pul- 
verizes the  bottom  slice 
which  immediately  falls 
to  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow  through  the 
space  between  the  outer 
edge  of  the  moldboard 
and  the  wing  of  the 
share,  and  the  broad 
part  of  the  moldboard 
turns  the  top  soil  in 
the  ordinary  way. 
While  this  plow  penetrates  to  a  depth  of  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches, 
the  furrow  is  left  half-full  of  pulverized  soil.  A  seed-bed  so  made  is 
necessarily  thoroughly  ventilated,  an  abundance  of  room  is  provided  for 
plant  roots,  and  owing  to  the  loose  condition  of  the  soil,  water  is  rapidly 
absorbed. 

This  plow  is  certainly  an  ideal  implement  to  use;  in  fact,  it  is  the  only 
one  which  has  ever  been  devised  that  eliminates  dangers  previously 
mentioned  and  at  the  same  time  provides  a  deep  seed-bed. 

The  Jointer 

When  trash  exists  on  the  surface  in  such  quantities  that  it  is  not  thor- 
oughly covered,  the  jointer  should  be  used.  This  attachment  can  be 
gauged  to  any  required  depth  necessary  to  turn  surface  trash.  As  it  is 
turned,  it  strikes  the  previous  furrow  a  few  inches  below  the  top  and  is 
caught  and  covered  by  the  moldboard  slice,  leaving  the  surface  free  of 
the  accumulation  and  at  the  same  time  not  placing  it  below  the  reach  of 
the  disc  or  other  tillage  implements. 

29 


John  Deere  Deep-Tilling  Stag  Turning  a  Furrow 
16  Inches  Deep 


Sod  can  be  plowed  deep  with  perfect  safety  if  the  jointer  is  used.  It 
should  be  run  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  depending  upon  the 
nature  of  the  sod.  The  sod-ribbon  is  so  placed  when  it  is  turned  that  it 
is  slightly  covered  by  the  dirt  from  the  moljiboard  and  can  be  easily 
pulverized  by  using  a  disc.  Without  the  jointer  attachment,  the  sod 
strip  might  be  covered  too  deep  or  project  above  the  surface,  depending 
entirely  upon  the  texture  of  the  soil. 

The  advantage  in  plowing  sod  deep,  if  this  plow  with  the  jointer 
attachment  is  used,  is  plain.  Water  is  secured  and  stored  more  readily 
and  roots  can  penetrate  very  deep,  a  condition  which  cannot  be  attained 
where  the  ordinary  plow  is  used.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  to  plow  sod  deep  with  the  ordinary  plow  turning  the  sod,  as  is 
necessarily  the  case,  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  bringing  to  the 
surface  raw,  unventilated  soil  devoid  of  humus,  is  disastrous. 

Subsoil 

Unfortunately,  conditions  exist  where  deep  plowing  cannot  be  accom- 
plished until  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  has  been  changed.  Some 
soils  below  the  depth  of  the  ordinary  plow  are  so  dense  and  sticky,  that 
penetration  is  difficult  and  scouring  impossible.  In  other  soils  a  hard- 
pan  may  exist  which  is  not  only  difficult  to  penetrate  but  if  turned  or 
materially  loosened,  large  air  spaces  are  formed  which  hinder  the 
upward  movement  of  capillary  water.  Either  condition  can  be  over- 
come by  using  the  right  type  of  subsoil  plow. 

The  benefits  of  subsoiling  are  often  misunderstood,  and,  in  many 
instances,  the  farmer  has  been  misled  to  the  extent  of  making  his  land 
unproductive  for  a  number  of  years. 


Gang  Equipped  with  Subsoil  Attachment 
30 


The  First  Type  of  Subsoil  Plow 

invented  had  a  narrow  share  and  a  long  moldboard,  which  would  bring 
subsoil  to  the  surface.  Theorists  at  that  time  believed  that  subsoil, 
being  new,  was  rich  in  plant  food  elements,  and  that  it  would  make 
their  land  productive.  The  absence,  however,  of  humus  in  the  subsoil 
resulted  in  disappointments.  If  the  subsoil  was  clay  or  sand,  there 
would  be  no  production  until  organic  matter  was  thoroughly  mixed  with 
the  soil  and  reduced  to  humus. 

The  Next  Type  of  Subsoil  Plow 

devised  was  one  with  a  duck-bill-shaped  point,  intended  to  break  up  the 
soil  below  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.     This  implement  was  condemned, 


Proper  Method  of  Subsoiling  Is  to  Cut  a  Thin,  Deep  Gash  in  Bottoms  of  Alternating 
Furrows  ..  In  Dry  Sections  It  Should  Be  Used  in  Every  Furrow 


especially  where  the  subsoil  was  hard  and  composed  largely  of  clay,  for 
the  reason  that  the  breaking  up  process  caused  large  air  spaces  which 
practically  stopped  capillary  water  from  rising  to  the  seed-bed. 

The  Modern  Type  of  Subsoil  Plow 

possesses  none  of  the  objectionaljle  features  of  the  other  two  mentioned, 
but  it  does  solve  the  difficulties  which  were  first  mentioned,  namely, 
dense,  sticky  subsoils  and  hard-pans. 

This  plow  is  built  on  the  principle  of  a  colter.     It  cuts  a  gash  from 
three-eighths  to  one-half  inch  in  width  and  to  any  required  depth,  but 


it  does  not  break  up  the  subsoil  or  hard-pan  to  any  great  extent.  In 
this  gash  water  and  air  are  freely  admitted.  They  naturally  spread  out 
when  the  bottom  of  the  gash  is  reached  and  obeying  nature's  laws,  they 
reach  the  surface  by  capillary  attraction.  To  illustrate,  if  a  wooden 
floor  is  laid  upon  another  floor  which  is  tight  and  water  is 
poured  into  a  crack  in  the  top  layer,  it  naturally  spreads  out 
and  in  time  comes  to  the  surface  by  the  process  of  capillary  attrac- 
tion, causing  a  rotting  of  the  boards.  Likewise,  water  which  enters 
this  gash  in  the  soil  followed  by  air,  works  on  the  same  principle, 
coming  to  the  surface,  as  it  must,  it  causes  a  mellowing  or  rotting  of 
the  compact  soils. 

Two  important  things  can  be  secured  by  using  this  type  of  plow, 
namely : 

1.  Water  is  stored  to  be  utilized  by  the  plant,  and  the  dense  soil  is 
mellowed,  permitting  the  penetration  of  roots. 

2.  After  this  plow  has  been  used  and  the  water  and  air  have  done 
their  work,  the  deep  plow  will  then  not  only  penetrate  but  will  usually 
scour.  Where  this  plow  has  been  used,  especially  in  dry  sections,  the 
results  have  been  remarkable.  The  implement  can  be  attached  to  a 
gang  plow,  penetrating  every  alternate  furrow,  or  it  can  be  easily  drawn 
by  two  horses  running  to  a  depth  of  from  ten  to  eighteen  inches. 

Storer  gives  the  following: 

"Mr.  Wilson,  near  Edinburgh,  operating  on  land  that  had  been  tile- 
drained,  plowed  a  field  eight  inches  deep  and  subsoiled  a  part  of  it  to  a 
depth  of  eighteen  inches.  The  differences  in  the  crops  grown  the  first 
year  after  these  operations  are  given  in  the  table : 


Turnips 

Barley 

Potatoes 

Tons 

Cwt. 

Grain, 
bu. 

Straw, 
cwt. 

Tons        Cwt. 

Plowed  to  8  inches    _   20              7 

Subsoiled  to  18  inches j      26            17 

60 
70 

28 
361 

6  141 

7  9^ 

Gain  made  by  subsoiling 

6            10 

10 

8^ 

141 

Mr.  MacLean,  in  the  same  vicinity,  made  a  similar  experiment  with 
the  following  result: 


Turnips 

Barley 

Tons 

Cwt. 

Grain, 
Bu. 

Straw, 
Cwt. 

Plowed  to  8  inches 

19 
23 

15 
17 

54 
62 

1681 

Subsoiled  15  inches j 

206^ 

Gain  made  by  subsoiling 

4 

2 

8 

38 

In  another  case,  where  accurate  accounts  of  the  products  were  kept, 
the  good  effects  of  subsoihng  were  seen  for  five  successive  years  after  the 
operation. 

In  this  country,  Sanborn  plowed  two  plots  of  land,  each  of  A  acre, 
seven  inches  deep,  and  then  subsoiled  one  of  them  to  a  depth  of  nine 
inches  more,  so  that  this  plot  was  stirred  to  a  depth  of  sixteen  inches  in 
all.  After  a  severe  drouth,  he  drove  gas-pipes  into  the  earth  so  that 
samples  of  the  soil  could  be  taken  up  from  both  plots  to  a  depth  of  fifteen 
inches.  In  the  earth  from  the  subsoiled  plot  he  found  10.1  per  cent  of 
moisture,  while  in  that  from  the  other  plot  there  was  only  8.3  per  cent. 
The  subsoiled  plot  yielded  corn  at  the  rate  of  seventy  bushels  to  the 
acre,  and  the  other  plot  yielded  only  forty-nine  bushels  to  the  acre." 

Caution 

Do  not  use  the  subsoil  plow  in  clay  saturated  with  water;  or  when 
the  subsoil  is  sand  or  gravel. 

In  thin  soil,  when  a  hard-pan  lies. immediately  on  top  of  the  loose 
sand  or  gravel,  the  subsoil  plow  should  not  be  used,  for  the  reason  that 
it  would  permit  water  to  percolate  beyond  the  reach  of  the  plant  roots. 


SEED-BED 


OF  the  four  essential  steps  in  the  production  of  farm  crops  mentioned 
in  a  previous  chapter,  namely — the  seed-bed,  fertility,  selection  of 
seed  and  cultivation — the  seed-bed  deserves  special  consideration,  for  if 
it  is  not  properly  made,  the  defects  will  be  reflected  in  the  final  produc- 
tion, regardless  of  how  carefully  the  three  remaining  features  are 
observed. 

We  realize  that  the  seeding  season  is  short,  and  that  to  comply  with 
all  of  the  requirements,  the  average  farmer  is  unable  to  plant  a  great 
acreage,  but  we  contend  and  we  know  that  if  the  seed-bed  of  one  acre  is 
made  right,  it  will  produce  as  much  as  two  acres  improperly  prepared. 

The  seed-bed  is  a  laboratory  containing  chemical  elements  which  are 
used  in  making  plant  food  compounds.  Soil  bacteria  are  the  chemists 
and  the  plants  are  the  consumers.  Plants  are  exacting  in  their  require- 
ments, and  if  denied  any  of  the  essentials,  in  whole  or  part,  the  farmer 
suffers  the  penalty  when  the  harvest  is  gathered. 

Requirements 

The  chemists  or  soil  bacteria  and  the  plants  enjoy  a  roomy,  sanitary, 
home;  they  require  a  sufficient  amount  of  all  of  the  inorganic  elements 
necessary  to  plant  growth  and  a  good  supply  of  organic  substances. 
They  perish  if  atmospheric  oxygen  is  denied  them,  and  water  is  just  as 


necessary  to  them  as  it  is  to  animate  creatures.  Micro-organisms  are 
assisted  in  their  work  by  the  chemical  action  of  elements  forming  and 
transforming  new  compounds,  by  gases  and  water  and  organic  sub- 
stances. 

The  seed-bed  is  made  deep  by  deep  plowing;  it  is  made  sanitary  by 
tiling,  trenching  and  tillage.  Its  physical  and  mechanical  condition  is 
always  in  keeping  with  the  amount  of  tillage  it  receives. 

Why  a  Roomy  Seed-Bed 

1.  Some  water  and  the  available  plant  food  is  stored  in  the  seed-bed ; 
hence,  it  is  very  plain  that  a  deep  seed-bed  would  contain  more  than  a 
shallow  one  just  as  we  would  expect  to  find  more  nourishment  in  a  thick 
slice  of  bread  than  in  a  thin  one. 

2.  A  deep,  roomy  seed-bed  affords  freedom  to  plant  roots.  Roots 
are  not  unlike  leaves  and  branches.  They  require  room  and  freedom 
if  the  development  is  rapid  and  perfect.  Roots  seek  the  course  of  least 
resistance,  and  their  natural  course  is  downward,  just  as  the  natural 
course  of  branches  is  upward.  If  the  seed-bed  is  shallow,  when  the 
first  delicate  roots  reach  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  which  is  usually 
compact  and  sometimes  very  hard,  they  spread  out,  not  being  able  to 
penetrate  the  hard  substance,  and  in  the  event  of  a  drouth,  the  shallow 
bed  dries  out  and  the  plant  suffers.  If,  however,  it  is  deep,  the  roots 
will  have  strength  and  stability  to  penetrate  the  more  compact  subsoils 
where  they  can  secure  water  and  some  plant  food. 

3.  A  deep  seed-bed,  if  properly  pulverized,  acts  as  a  reservoir  to  hold 
water  until  it  can  percolate  into  the  deeper  soils  and  necessarily  a 


r^?] 


Showing  Cracks  in  the  Land  Through  Which  Moisture  Escapes 


Showing  How  EfiEectively  a  Surface  Mulch  Prevents  the  Escape  of  Moisture 

34 


Was  Not  Disced  Before  or  After  Plowing 


--^ 


■^G^^^' 


Disced  Before  Plowing,  Making  the  Contact  Compact  Between  the  Bottom  of  the  Furrow 

and  the  Furrow  Slice 


.^^ift^V-— r'-^^^'^^- 


A  Poorly-Made  Seed-Bed  ..  Disced  After  Plowing,  But  Not  Before  ..  The  Large  Air  Spaces 

Prevent  Capillary  Action 


-..^'d^fe' 


A  Perfect  Seed-Bed  ..  Disced  Before  and  After  Plowing  ..  Seed-Bed  to  the  Left  Is  Too  Shallow. 
Note  ..  Soil  Particles  Magnified  1,000  Diameters 


greater  volume  of  water  will  adhere  to  the  particles  of  soil  as  it  passes 
down  and  be  available  to  the  plant  roots  in  a  deep  seed-bed  than  a  shal- 
low one.  Air  being  necessary  to  both  micro-organisms  and  plant  I'oots, 
it  is  reasonable  to  expect  more  to  be  available  in  a  roomy  seed-bed  than 
in  a  shallow  one. 

35 


storing  and  Utilizing  Water 

Water  is  stored  just  in  proportion  to  the  permeability  of  the  seed-bed 
and  the  texture  of  the  subsoil.  After  the  plants  have  utilized  the  water 
which  adheres  to  the  particles  of  soil  in  its  passage  downward,  they 
then  begin  to  draw  by  the  process  of  capillary  attraction,  upon  the 
water  which  has  been  stored  in  the  subsoil.  In  order  to  insure  perfect 
capillarity,  there  must  be  no  large  air  spaces  either  at  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow  or  in  the  body  of  the  seed-bed.  In  other  words,  there  should  be 
a  medium  compact  condition  of  the  soil  particles.  Before  the  plow 
turns  surface  trash  and  surface  lumps  under,  the  disc  harrow  should  be 
used.  Trash  on  the  bottom  of  the  seed-bed  acts  as  an  insulation,  on 
account  of  the  large  air  spaces,  which  effectually  stop  the  upward 
movement  of  water.     The  disc  harrow  not  only  pulverizes  lumps  which 


Disc  Harrow 


This  Implement  Is  an  Insurance  Against  Loss  from  Drouth  if 
Used  Before  and  After  Deep  Plowing 


may  be  on  or  within  three  or  four  inches  of  the  surface,  but  it  chops  up 
and  works  into  the  soil  stubble  and  all  trash  on  the  surface  so  that  when 
the  plow  turns  the  slice  of  earth,  the  contact  is  compact  between  the 
plowed  ground  and  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  After  the  ground  is 
plowed,  it  should  be  again  disced  in  order  to  insure  pulverization  and 
compactness  of  the  portion  of  the  soil  which  has  been  turned  up  by  the 
plow.  Again,  the  seed-bed  should  be  disced  and  harrowed  so  as  to  alter 
the  position  and  condition  of  the  soil  particles  in  order  that  changes  in 
their  chemical  composition  may  be  brought  about  by  contact  with  each 
other,  by  the  action  of  air  and  water  and  by  micro-organisms. 

Furthermore,  the  seed-bed  should  be  mellow  and  at  the  same  time 

36 


firm  enough  to  afford  proper  support  to  the  plant.  It  should  be  loose 
enough  to  permit  water  to  percolate  and  admit  without  hindrance  the 
free  growth  of  delicate  root  fibers.  The  soft  points  of  roots  will  not 
penetrate  hard  lumps,  but  will  pass  around  and  adhere  to  them  in  their 
effort  to  secure  food  and  water. 

We  know  that  plant  food  in  solution  forms  a  film  around  each  par- 
ticle of  soil,  and  that  the  very  minute  roots  throw  their  tentacles  around 
it  and  secure  nourishment  by  osmosis.  Therefore,  the  advantage  of  a 
thoroughly  pulverized  seed-bed  is  very  apparent  when  we  realize  that 
the  available  feeding  area  contained  in  a  lump  of  soil  is  increased  one 
thousand-fold  when  it  is  broken  up  and  all  of  the  particles  are  separated. 
While  tillage  does  not  increase  the  amount  of  plant  food  elements  in  the 
soil,  it  does  make  available  those  which  are  there.  We  know  that  mil- 
lions of  acres,  rich  in  plant  food,  are  producing  less  than  one-half  of 
their  capacity,  simply  because  the  fertility  is  not  available  or  within 
reach  of  plant  roots,  and  because  stored  water  cannot  move  upwards  on 
account  of  obstructions  which  could  be  avoided.  In  the  judgment  of 
the  writer,  a  farmer  takes  out  an  insurance  policy  against  crop  failure 
when  he  uses  the  disc  harrow  before  and  after  plowing. 


DRAINAGE 


WE  will  not  attempt  to  enter  into  a  lengthy  discussion  of  this  sub- 
ject, believing  that  every  observing  farmer  is  convinced  of  the  bene- 
fits to  be  gained  by  thoroughly  draining  his  land.  We  will,  however, 
mention  a  few  of  the  reasons  why  lands  are  made  more  productive  and 
the  possibility  of  failures  eliminated  by  thorough  drainage. 

1.  Farm  crops  are  not  aquatic;  that  is,  the  roots  will  not  perform 
their  function  of  gathering  plant  food  and  water  if  they  are  submerged 
in  water. 

2.  Plant  roots  and  soil  bacteria  require  free  atmospheric  oxygen. 
If  for  any  reason  air  does  not  circulate  through  the  soil,  the  plant  will 
be  smothered  and  bacteria  will  not  transform  elements  into  compounds. 

We  have  stated  in  a  previous  chapter  that  because  of  the  irregular 
shape  and  variety  of  sizes  of  soil  particles,  air  spaces  exist  when  any 
number  of  particles  are  brought  together.  These  air  spaces  constitute 
from  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  volume  of  soil.  If  air  spaces 
did  not  exist,  the  soil  would  be  a  solid  stone.  Again,  many  soil  particles 
are  not  solid,  but  perforated,  thereby  further  increasing  the  volume  of 
air  spaces.     Air  spaces  between  and  through  the  particles  of  soil  are : 

1.  To  permit  a  free  circulation  of  atmospheric  oxygen  through  the  soil, 

2.  To  permit  water  to  pass  downward. 

3.  To  promote  capillary  attraction. 

37 


4.  To  permit  the  minute  food  and  water-gathering  roots  to  pass 
between  and  to  particles  of  soil. 

5.  To  provide  a  storehouse  for  plant  food  and  moisture. 

Benefits  of  Drainage 

All  plants  require  water  and  will  perish  without  it.  Excepting  water 
plants,  it  must  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  a  film  adhering  to  the  free 
surface  of  soil  particles.  Plant  roots,  unless  they  be  of  the  aquatic 
variety,  will  soon  die  if  submerged  in  water;  hence,  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  water  table  or  standing  water  at  a  distance  far  enough  from 
the  surface  to  permit  the  joots  to  freely  develop.  Underlain  drain  tile 
tend  to  carry  off  surplus  water  after  the  soil  below  the  tile  is  filled.  The 
tile  in  no  way  interfere  with  water  stored  below  them,  but  simply 
carry  away  the  superfluous  amount  above  it,  leaving  all  that  will  adhere 
to  the  particles  of  soil  to  be  used  by  plants,  and  as  it  is  consumed,  more 
is  furnished  from  below  by  capillary  attraction. 

During  the  early  spring,  at  a  time  when  seeds  are  planted  and  rapid 
germination  is  very  necessary,  the  soil  is  usually  surcharged  with  snow 
and  ice  water.  Evaporation  is  necessarily  very  slow,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, the  soil  is  cold,  soggy  and  lifeless  at  a  time  when  the  plant 
should  be  making  its  most  rapid  growth.  If  the  land  is  drained,  the 
cold  water  is  removed  from  below,  the  upper  stratum  of  soil  is  warmed 
by  spring  rains  and  air  thereby  causes  a  rapid  germination  and  root 
development. 

Plant  Roots  Require  Air 

If  the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles  are  filled  with  water,  air  cannot 
circulate,  a  condition  which  causes  the  roots  to  rot  or  cease  to  develop. 

Drain  Tile  Warm  the  Seed-Bed 

During  the  spring,  air  is  warmer  than  the  soil  and  spring  rains 
warmer  than  snow  water.  If  both  ends  of  the  drain  are  open,  or  man- 
holes are  placed  along  the  line  of  tile,  warm  air  enters  and  finds  its  way 
thi'ough  the  soil,  and  warm  rains  are  freely  absorbed,  thereby  materially 
affecting  the  temperature  of  the  soil. 

If  the  farmer  will  test  a  drained  and  an  undrained  soil  at  early  seeding 
time,  he  will  find  the  drained  land  from  six  to  twelve  degrees  warmer 
than  that  which  is  not  drained.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  seed  will  not 
germinate  in  soil  below  42  degrees  Fahrenheit,  it  is  very  evident  that  if 
the  temperature  can  be  raised  from  six  to  twelve  degrees,  by  placing 
drain  tile,  the  early  growth  gained  on  account  of  the  warmth  of  the 
seed-bed  would  be  worth  considering. 

Drainage  Prevents  Loss  from  Drouths 

This  statement  may  seem  strange,  but  it  nevertheless  is  true.  If  in 
the  spring  when  seeds  are  planted  the  soil  is  surcharged  with  water, 

38 


nearly  to  the  surface,  the  roots  will  develop  above  the  water  line,  keep- 
ing near  the  surface.  If,  after  the  roots  have  attained  their  growth,  a 
drouth  sets  in,  the  water  line  is  lowered  several  feet,  but  the  roots  having 
ceased  to  grow,  they  are  left  in  the  surface  soils  in  a  helpless  condition. 
If,  however,  during  the  first  few  weeks,  the  water  line  is  at  or  below  the 
tile,  the  roots  will  strike  downward  very  rapidly,  and  when  the  drouth 
does  come,  they  will  be  in  a  territory  containing  moisture.  It  is  re- 
corded that  during  the  terrible  drouth  of  1854  wheat,  corn,  oats  and 
other  plants  flourished  and  made  a  fair  crop  on  tile-drained  land,  but 
perished  on  land  not  drained. 

Drain  Tile  Improve  the  Soil  Physically 

Drain  tile  naturally  give  life  and  vigor  to  the  soil  and  such  soils  are 
mellow  and  friable,  water  is  absorbed  more  freely  and  capillary  attrac- 
tion is  perfect. 

Low  Ground 

If  low  ground  is  drained,  it  can  be  worked  much  earlier  in  the  spring 
or  after  heavy  rains  than  undrained  ground,  and  the  danger  of  puddling 
is  greatly  lessened. 

Drainage  Prevents  Surface  Washing 

If  sloping  land  is  saturated  with  water,  the  soil  is  apt  to  wash  in  the 
event  of  more  rain.  Drained  soil  will  readily  absorb  the  water  as  fast 
as  it  falls,  thereby  preventing  the  loose  soil  from  washing  away  and 
forming  gulleys.  By  running  a  few  lines  of  tile  at  a  gentle  slope  on  a 
steep  hillside,  gulley-forming  will  be  prevented. 

Water-Holding  Capacity  of  Soil 

Plants  are  benefited  only  by  the  water  that  adheres  to  the  surface  of 
the  soil  particles,  and  any  additional  water  is  a  detriment.  Prof. 
Schubler  states  that  one  hundred  pounds  of  the  following  types  of  soil 
will  hold  by  attraction  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  particles  as  follows : 

Sand  _  25  pounds  of  water 

Loam  Soils  40  pounds  of  water 

Clay  Loam 50  pounds  of  water 

Pure  Clay 70  pounds  of  water 

Mr.  Sheld  states  that  the  soil  of  ordinary  density  to  a  depth  of  three 
feet  will  hold  by  attraction  before  any  will  drain  away,  17f  inches  of 
rainfall.  If  drains  are  placed  three  feet  deep,  a  square  foot  of  surface 
will  receive  10.6  gallons  of  water  before  one  particle  would  enter  the 
drain.  Hence,  it  can  be  seen  that  drain  tile  do  not  rob  the  ground  of 
water  that  can  be  utilized,  nor  does  it  in  any  way  exhaust  that  which 
may  be  stored  below  the  growing  line. 

39 


Power  of  Soil  to  Absorb  Moisture  from  the  Air 

Dry  soil  will  absorb  moisture  from  air  in  varying  quantities,  the 
amount  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  soil.  This  moisture, 
known  as  hygroscopic  water,  enters  the  seed-bed  and  is  beneficial  to 
plants  if  the  ground  is  so  thoroughly  drained  that  air  can  freely  circulate 
through  it.  As  the  air  passes  through  the  soil,  the  moisture  adheres  to 
the  particles  and  in  a  limited  way  is  beneficial. 

Schubler  states  that  different  soils  possess  this  power  in  unequal 
degrees.  During  a  night  of  twelve  hours  and  when  the  air  is  moist 
one  thousand  pounds  of  perfectly  dry 

Quarts  Sand  will  gain 0  pounds 

Calcaria  Sand  will  gain 2  pounds 

Loam  Soil  will  gain .21  pounds 

Clay  Loam  will  gain 25  pounds 

Pure  Agricultural  Clay 11  pounds 

If  the  soil  is  of  good  tilth,  thoroughly  drained  and  contains  an 
abundance  of  humus,  the  amount  of  hygroscopic  moisture  absorbed 
is  increased. 

Size  of  Drain  Tile  to  Use 

The  size  to  use  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  line,  the  fall,  amount 
of  water  to  be  carried  away  and  the  character  of  the  soil.  A  one-inch 
pipe  carries  one  inch  (circular  measure)  of  water.  A  two-inch  pipe 
will  carry  four  inches  of  water.  A  three-inch  pipe  will  carry  nine 
inches  and  a  four-inch  pipe  will  carry  sixteen  inches  of  water.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen  that  under  the  same  conditions  a  four-inch  pipe  will 
carry  sixteen  times  as  much  water  as  a  one-inch  pipe,  in  fact  it  carries 
more  than  that  for  the  reason  that  friction  is  much  less  in  a  larger  pipe 
than  in  a  small  one.  A  drain  tile  eight  inches  in  diameter  with  a  fall 
of  three-tenths  of  a  foot  in  one  hundred  feet  will  discharge  277,487 
gallons  of  water  in  24  hours.  If  a  foot  fall  it  will  discharge  525,647 
gallons  during  the  same  time.  A  four-inch  drain  pipe  having  three- 
tenths  of  a  foot  fall  in  one  hundred  feet  will  discharge  43,697  gallons 
in  twenty-four  hours  and  with  a  one-foot  fall  it  will  discharge  86,181 
gallons.  Therefore  it  can  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  amount 
of  water  a  pipe  will  carry  in  a  given  time  not  only  depends  upon 
the  size  of  the  pipe,  but  the  fall  which  is  a  very  important  thing 
to  consider. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  main  tile  large  enough  to  carry  off 
the  maximum  flow  without  exhausting  the  capacity  of  the  drain.  If 
the  tile  is  not  large  enough  it  is  apt  to  be  undermined  and  disarranged. 
The  main  can  be  made  large  at  the  outlet  and  gradually  diminished 
to  the  highest  point  using  a  reducer  from  time  to  time.  At  the  junc- 
tion where  laterals  join  the  drain  tile,  both  main  and  laterals  should 
have  a  firm  foundation  and  be  well  tamped  on  the  sides  and  top. 

40 


While  no  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down  governing  the  size  of  tile,  a 
main  eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter  and  laterals  four  inches  in  diam- 
eter will  usually  meet  ordinary  conditions  unless  the  area  drained  is 
exceedingly  large. 

Number  of  Rods  of  Drain  Tile  Required  per  Acre 
at  Different  Distances 

The  following  table  will  serve  as  a  guide  in  ordering  tile  for  a  single 
acre. 


Intervals  Between  the  Drains  in  Feet  - 

Rods  per  Acre 

15                                                   -    -    

176 

18                                                         -    -    

146  2-3 

21 

125  5-7 

24                         -   -                    

110 

27                                                 

97  7-9 

30                                                 

88 

33                                                 -      

80 

36 

73  1-3 

39 

67  9-13 

42 

62  5-7 

Depth  of  Drains 

It  is  entirely  useless  to  lay  drain  tile  one  or  two  feet  below  the  sur- 
face. In  order  to  secure  the  many  benefits  which  may  be  gained, 
the  ditch  should  be  not  less  than  four  feet  deep.  In  some  instances  it 
may  be  necessary,  on  account  of  the  lay  of  the  land,  to  place  them  at 
less  depth,  but  an  effort  should  be  made  to  secure  an  outlet  which  will 
permit  a  depth  of  not  less  than  four  feet  at  the  shallowest  point. 

Drain  tile  should  be  below  frost.  If  a  drain  tile  freezes  while  filled 
with    water    it    will    burst. 

How  to  Lay  Pipe 

After  the  engineer  has  determined  the  route  for  each  line,  the 
operation  of  digging  the  ditch  and  laying  the  tile  should  begin  at  the 
outlet.  If  a  middlebuster  or  heavy  broad  gauge  plow  is  used,  the  first 
foot  of  soil  can  be  thrown  out  at  little  cost.  If  quick  sand  is  encoun- 
tered, a  solid  foundation  should  be  secured  in  some  way  before  the  tile 
are   laid. 


IRRIGATION 

TO  successfully  irrigate  land,  several  very  important  things  must  be 
observed,  otherwise  the  results  sooner  or  later  will  be  disappointing. 
1.     The 'field  should  be  leveled  or  at  least  the  surface  made  even. 
All  dead  furrows  and  depressions  must  be  remedied. 

41 


2.  The  ground  should  be  underlain  with  drain  tile.  We  fully  appre- 
ciate the  fact  that  the  farmer  who  is  just  beginning  in  a  new  country 
will  hesitate  on  account  of  the  expense,  still  tile  are  so  important 
that  he  cannot  afford  to  ignore  them  if  he  expects  his  soil  to  continue  to 
produce  as  it  should.  Drain  tile  not  only  carry  away  surplus  water, 
but  they  furnish  an  escape  for  water  holding  in  solution  alkali  salts. 
In  most  of  our  irrigated  sections  the  water  contains  more  or  less  of 
some  of  the  alkalis.  It  is  estimated  that  fully  a  million  acres 
of  irrigated  lands  which  at  one  time  were  productive,  are  worthless 
today  because  of  the  presence  of  these  deleterious  salts.  Again, 
drain  tile  admit  atmospheric  oxygen.  Free  atmospheric  oxygen 
is  just  as  essential  to  irrigated  soils  as  it  is  to  other  soils,  in  fact, 
where  alfalfa  is  raised  it  is  even  more  necessary.  Oxygen  supports 
soil  bacteria  of  various  kinds  which  are  necessary  to  absorb  nitrogen 
from  the  atmosphere,  to  nitrify  organic  nitrogen  and  to  make  plant 
food  compounds. 

3.  Water  should  be  supplied  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  not  inter- 
fere with  the  growth  of  the  plant,  but  be  utilized  by  the  plant  roots 
according  to  nature's  process.  The  air  spaces  between  the  particles 
of  soil  are  for  the  purpose  of  permitting  water  to  percolate  into  the 
deeper  soils  to  permit  plant  roots  to  pass  down  and  to  the  particles  of 
soil  in  their  efforts  to  secure  plant  food  and  for  the  purpose  of  permitting 
the  circulation  of  atmospheric  oxygen.  When  the  water  is  turned  on 
the  land  and  it  is  percolating  to  the  deeper  soils,  the  air  spaces  are  neces- 
sarily filled,  the  oxygen  is  driven  out  and  the  plant  for  the  time  does  not 
grow.  If  this  condition  continues  for  a  protracted  period,  the  plant 
necessarily  smothers;  therefore,  before  the  crop  is  planted,  water  should 
be  turned  on  in  sufficient  quantities  to  make  the  crop  if  possible.  If  the 
ground  is  tiled,  the  water  percolates  very  freely  into  the  deeper  subsoils 
and  is  brought  to  the  surface  seed-bed  by  capillary  attraction,  just  as 
hydrostatic  water  or  rain  water  is  utilized.  In  extremely  dry  sections, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  irrigate  more  than  once,  but,  as  a  rule,  frequent 
irrigations  hinder  rather  than  benefit  the  crop.  The  irrigating  farmer 
should  use  the  same  methods  adopted  by  the  dry-land  farmer.  He 
should  store  his  water  and  then  practice  intensive  cultivation  methods, 
pulverizing,  packing  and  maintaining  a  mulch  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
moisture.  The  writer  has  seen  many  splendid  prospects  practically 
ruined  by  using  too  much  water  and  not  adopting  dry-land  methods  for 
the  purpose  of  conserving  moisture. 

After  the  farmer  has  prepared  his  land  so  that  no  ridges  or  depressions 
exist,  all  subsequent  plowing  should  be  done  with  a  two-way  plow.  By 
using  this  implement,  there  will  be  no  dead  furrows  or  back  furrows  or 
depressions.  Farmers  who  have  used  this  implement  unhesitatingly 
testify  that  it  makes  a  saving  of  from  five  to  ten  dollars  an  acre  each  year 
by  leaving  the  land  as  level  and  regular  as  it  was  before  it  was  plowed. 

42 


tf^a^ 


A  Two- Way  Plow  ..  Indispensable  on  Steep  Hillsides  and  Irrigated  Ground 

ROTATION 

rpHE  value  of  a  systematic  rotation  of  crops  is  so  well  known  to  every 
-L  observing  farmer,  that  it  seems  unnecessary  to  enter  into  a  lengthy 
discussion  of  the  subject.  Farmers  have  practiced  rotation  and  appre- 
ciated the  benefits  since  early  Roman  times,  still  many  farmers  of  our 
country  have  neglected  and  are  neglecting  the  art,  not  because  of  igno- 
rance, but  because  rich  lands  have  been  plentiful  and  cheap  in  price,  and 
they  could,  without  great  effort,  produce  enough  to  supply  the  demand; 
hence,  a  system  which  guarantees  a  greater  production  has,  in  a  meas- 
ure, been  neglected. 

We  will  offer,  however,  a  few  common-sense  suggestions,  hoping  that 
the  farmer  will,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  demand  for  farm  products  is 
increasing  much  faster  than  our  production,  accept  and  enforce  them, 
for  he  is  the  custodian  of  the  nation's  larder,  and  we,  judging  from  the 
high  cost  of  living,  are  liable  to  face  actual  want  unless  the  volume  of 
food  is  increased. 

Plant  Roots 

Scientific  investigation  has  proven  that  the  plant  root  excretes  or 
forms  deleterious  substances  which  are  a  poison,  in  a  degree,  to  its  own 
kind,  but  a  stimulant  to  another  plant.  We  know  that  if  a  piece  of 
ground  is  cropped  year  after  year  with  the  same  crop,  that  each  year  the 
production  is  a  little  less,  until,  finally,  it  will  not  pay  for  the  seed  and 
labor  expended  for  cultivation,  when,  at  the  same  time,  plant  food  ele- 
ments may  exist  in  the  same  soil  in  abundance. 

In  one  demonstration  where  corn  was  grown  on  the  same  piece  of  land 
for  twenty-eight  years,  the  last  ten  years  averaged  twenty-two  bushels 


44 


per  acre,  and  an  adjoining  field,  where  rotation  was  practiced,  made  a 
yield  of  over  seventy  bushels  per  acre.  Another  demonstration 
extended  over  a  period  of  seventeen  years  gave  a  yield  of  eleven  bushels 
of  corn  the  last  five  years,  but  where  rotation  was  adopted  on  an 
adjoining  field,  the  yield  was  seventy-five  bushels  per  acre.  Scores  of 
like  instances  can  be  mentioned. 

We  know  that  flax  cannot  be  profitably  grown  on  the  same  land  two 
or  more  years  in  succession  because  of  a  root  wilt,  and  potatoes  rarely  do 
well  when  they  succeed  themselves  on  account  of  scab,  fungi,  rot,  etc. 

We  know  that  land  becomes  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  clover-sick  to  the 
extent  of  being  discarded  as  "worn  out,"  when  in  reality  the  land  sim- 
ply refuses  to  produce  because  of  mismanagement. 

Deep-rooting  plants  should  be  followed  by  those  which  have  shallow 
roots;  for  instance,  alfalfa  and  clover  roots  grow  many  feet  into  the  sub- 
soils; they  secure  water  and  food  far  below  the  reach  of  other  plants. 
We  know  that  legumes  have  the  power  to  take  nitrogen  out  of  the  air, 
not  only  to  provide  for  their  own  wants,  but  leave  a  surplus  in  the  soil. 
Such  crops  should  be  followed  by  one  which  requires  an  abundance  of 
nitrogen  and  does  not  send  roots  as  deep.  Corn  always  produces  more 
abundantly  when  it  follows  a  legume,  because  it  requires  a  large  quantity 
of  nitrogen  and  secures  most  of  its  food  from  the  seed-bed.  Wheat  and 
other  grain  crops  obtain  their  food  nearer  the  surface,  and  their  plant 
food  requirements  are  somewhat  different  from  corn  and  clover;  hence, 
wheat  yield  is  increased  when  it  follows  corn. 

Crops  which  encourage  the  growth  of  weeds,  such  as  grains,  should  not 
succeed  each  other,  but  follow  a  hoed  crop.  Crops  which  are  liable  to  be 
infested  with  insects  should  not  succeed  each  other;  likewise  crops  which 
develop  fungi,  scab  and  rot,  such  as  potatoes  and  other  root  crops, 
should  not  be  repeated  on  the  same  land  each  year.  Grain  crops  are  apt 
to  lodge  if  not  planted  on  compact  soils,  and  root  crops  do  well  only 
when  planted  in  loose  ground.  Again,  root  crops  such  as  turnips  and 
beets  should  follow  crops  which  have  been  heavily  manured  and  the  soil 
is  of  such  texture  that  they  can  easily  penetrate  it. 

In  every  rotation,  some  one  of  the  legumes,  preferably  the  lucerne  or 
clover,  should  be  grown. 

Lucerne  or  Alfalfa 

The  roots  of  the  lucerne  penetrate  very  deep.  It  is  not  uncommon 
for  them  to  attain  a  length  of  from  twelve  to  eighteen  feet,  and  one  fifty 
feet  long,  in  a  preserved  state,  is  in  the  museum  at  Berne. 

Clover 

Clover  roots  do  not  penetrate  so  deep  as  the  lucerne,  rarely  going 
more  than  three  and  one-half  to  four  and  one-half  feet,  but  they  are  very 
abundant. 

46 


The  advantages  of  these  deep-rooting  plants  are  hardly  appreciated 
by  the  farmer  who  has  not  made  a  test  of  their  worth.  They  improve 
the  texture  of  the  soil,  permitting  water  to  be  more  freely  absorbed; 
they,  in  a  measure,  admit  air,  and  when  they  decay,  the  organic  matter 
is  resolved  into  humus  which,  acting  with  the  air  and  water,  combines 
with  inorganic  plant  food  elements,  making  them  available.  Plant 
food  thus  formed  is  brought  to  the  seed-bed  or  the  upper  subsoils  by 
capillary  attraction  and  utilized  by  other  plants.  This  process  accounts, 
to  a  great  extent,  for  the  increase  in  any  crop  that  follows  clover  or 
alfalfa. 

The  legumes  are  further  beneficial  in  this,  that  they  have  the  power 
through  a  bacteria  which  forms  on  the  roots  to  take  nitrogen  from  the 
air,  not  only  in  sufficient  quantities  to  provide  for  their  own  wants,  but 
to  deposit  a  considerable  amount  in  the  stubble  and  roots,  which 
becomes  a  part  of  the  soil. 

Storer  says  that  for  every  ton  of  clover  hay  harvested,  1600  pounds  of 
roots  and  stubble  are  left  upon  the  land. 

Heiden  states  that  of  the  total  nitrogen  produced  by  a  clover  crop 
(roots  included),  58  per  cent  are  contained  in  the  stalks  and  leaves  above 
the  ground  and  42  per  cent  in  the  roots.  In  proof  of  the  fertilizing 
power  of  clover-refuse,  Boussingault  states  that  wheat  taken  before 
clover  in  the  rotation  studied  by  him  habitually  gave  16  or  17  hecto- 
litres of  grain  to  the  hectare,  while  wheat  taken  after  clover,  gave  20  to 
21  hectolitres.  It  also  appears  from  results  obtained  by  Voelcker  that 
clover  roots  and  stubble  after  the  second  cutting  for  hay  contained  less 
nitrogen  than  the  stubble  and  roots  after  the  first  cutting  for  hay  and 
thig  second  cutting  for  seed,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Clover  mown  twice.  Clover  mown  once, 
then   left   for  seed. 


Residues  left  in  the  soil  by  a  crop  of 

long 
acre 

tons     to 

the 

Yield,  2.5  tons  hay 
and  3  cwt.  seed 

Pounds  of  dry  roots  to  the  acre 

1,493.5 

3,622.0 

Pounds  of  Nitrogen  in  these  roots 

24.5 

51.5 

Pounds  of  Nitrogen  in  upper  six  inches  of 
soil  of  an  acre    _    _            _      -   _  _ 

3,350.0 

4,725.0 

Pounds  of  Nitrogen  in  2d  six  inches 

1,875.0 

3,350.0 

Pounds  of  Nitrogen  in  3d  six  inches 

1,325.0 

2,225.0 

Pounds  of  Nitrogen  in  upper  12  inches  of 
soil  and  in  the  roots                     _    _  _ 

5,249 . 5 

8,126.5 

The  difficulty  in  securing  a  stand  of  clover  and  the  possibility  of 
winter-killing  prevents  many  farmers  from  growing  it.  Failures,  how- 
ever, to  secure  a  stand  is  due  very  often  to  a  poorly-made  seed-bed. 

46 


First,  the  clover  seed-bed  should  be  of  good  tilth,  all  of  the  surface 
lumps  thoroughly  pulverized,  and  the  seed  sown  at  a  time  when  germi- 
nation will  be  rapid.  If  clover  is  sown  on  fall  grain  in  the  spring,  the 
farmer  should  not  mud  it  in  nor  sow  it  when  the  ground  is  extremely 
cold.  He  should  wait  until  the  surface  is  beginning  to  dry  and  is  rea- 
sonably warm.  A  light  harrow  should  be  run  over  the  surface  before 
the  seed  is  sown;  after  the  seed  is  on  the  ground,  a  corrugated  roller 
should  be  used. 

Lime  Needed 

I  think  I  am  safe  in  saying  that  a  large  per  cent  of  the  failures  to 
secure  a  good,  healthy  stand  and  a  continued,  rapid  growth  through  the 
season,  is  due  to  the  lack  of  lime  in  the  soil.  Sour  soil  causes  the  plant 
to  be  weak  and  anaemic.  It  turns  yellow  and  most  of  it  will  die  in  the 
event  of  drouth. 

Winter-Killing 

Winter-killing  can,  in  a  great  measure,  be  prevented  by  spreading  a 
thin  coat  of  manure  over  the  surface  just  as  the  ground  is  freezing. 
Early  in  the  spring  a  peg-tooth  harrow  or  a  rake  should  be  used  for  the 
purpose  of  loosening  compact  pieces  of  manure  which,  if  permitted  to 
remain  on  the  plant,  would  cause  smothering.  If  clover  winter-kills, 
cow  peas,  soy  beans  or  vetch  should  be  sown.  If  the  ground  is  rich,  cut 
for  hay,  leaving  a  high  stubble,  fall  plow  and  top  dress  with  barnyard 
manure,  and  disc  in  before  planting  corn.  Clover,  like  alfalfa,  should 
not  be  pastured  too  close  after  the  last  cutting. 

No  fixed  rotation  will  apply  to  all  climates  and  soils.  The  farmer 
should  plan  to  suit  the  crops  best  adapted  to  his  climate  and  to  the 
general  character  of  the  soil. 

In  the  corn  belt,  a  good  rotation  is  corn,  wheat  (oats  or  barley)  and 
clover.  Where  clover  cannot  be  grown,  another  legume  should  be  sub- 
stituted. Where  wheat  and  corn  do  not  thrive  well,  Kaffir  corn,  milo 
maize  or  millet  may  be  substituted.  When  alfalfa  is  used  in  a  rotation, 
it  should  not  be  plowed  under  more  often  than  every  five  years.  Barley 
and  rye  follow  wheat  very  nicely,  but  wheat  should  never  follow  those 
crops.  Potatoes,  beets  and  turnips  require  a  deep,  loose  seed-bed,  rich 
in  organic  matter.  It  is  not  advisable,  however,  to  apply  manure  the 
year  the  crops  are  planted.  Sugar  beets  require  an  alkali  soil  and  the 
ground  should  be  of  loose  texture  and  the  seed-bed  not  less  than  twelve 
inches  deep.  Root  crops  do  well  after  clover  or  any  of  the  legumes  pro- 
vided the  land  is  plowed  deep  and  thoroughly  disced  the  previous  fall. 
A  good  plan  is  to  plant  cow  peas  as  a  catch  crop  after  the  grain  has  been 
harvested.  The  ground  should  be  thoroughly  manured,  and  after  the 
pea  crop  has  attained  a  good  growth,  plowed  under  deep.  It  should  be 
again  plowed  the  next  spring  before  the  crop  is  planted.  It  is  not  advis- 
able to  plant  oats  and  rye  on  loose  ground  or  soil  that  is  too  rich,  for  the 
reason  that  they  lodge  easily. 


48 


MANURES 

"But  S2veet  vicissitudes  of  rest  and  toil 
Make  easy  labor,  and  reneiv  the  soil. 
Yet  sprinkle  sordid  ashes  all  around, 
And  load  with  fatt'ning  dung  thy  fallow  ground." 

— Virgil. 

MANURE  is  any  substance  added  to  the  soil  with  a  view  of  rendering 
it  more  fertile.  Vegetable  growths,  all  kinds  of  animal  matter 
and  many  inorganic  substances  contain  plant  food,  either  in  the  form  of 
elements  or  compounds. 

To  simplify  the  study  of  this  very  important  subject,  we  will  classify 
manures  as  follows: 

Barnyard  or  farm  manures. 

Green  manures. 

Commercial  fertilizers. 

In  order  that  we  may  have  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  farm 
manures  from  a  plant  food  standpoint,  several  things  should  be  con- 
sidered. 

The  various  feeds  contain  different  amounts  of  the  principal  elements 
of  fertility.  Likewise  the  amount  of  plant  food  contained  in  excrements 
from  live-stock  varies  greatly  for  different  animals.  The  age  and  habits 
of  animals  affect  the  different  amounts  of  the  essential  elements  to  be 
found  in  manure  of  the  same  class.  For  instance,  a  young  growing 
animal  will  consume  and  retain  more  of  the  nitrogen  and  phosphorous 
in  feed  eaten  than  one  which  has  attained  its  growth  and  a  working 
animal  requires  more  than  an  idle  one.  Hence,  it  is  impossible  to  give 
the  exact  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphorous  and  potash  in  a  ton  of  mixed 
barnyard  manures  without  making  a  specific  analysis. 

The  figures  given, however,  are  based  upon  chemical  analyses  made  by 
many  of  our  most  learned  chemists  and  represent  very  closely  the  plan  t  food 
value  of  mixed  barnyard  manures  and  the  excreta  from  different  ani- 
mals. All  manures  contain  a  percentage  of  all  plant  food  elements,  but 
we  will  deal  only  with  the  important  ones — nitrogen,  phosphorous 
and  potash.  Such  elements  as  iron,  alumina,  silica,  magnesia,  sulphur, 
lime  and  soda  exist  in  most  soils  so  abundantly  that  it  is  not  necessary 
to  consider  any  of  them  excepting  lime  which  will  be  discussed  later. 

We  will  first  give  the  number  of  pounds  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  in  a  ton  of  the  most  commonly  used  stock  feed;  and,  subse- 
quently, the  pounds  of  the  same  elements  in  dung  and  urine  from  various 
farm  animals,  also  the  pounds  contained  in  mixed  yard  manures  and  in 
htter  or  bedding. 

If  the  reader  will  keep  in  mind  the  amount  of  plant  food  contained  in 
a  ton  of  manure  and  will  note  the  requirements  of  crops  which  will 
appear  in  a  subsequent  table,  he  will  have  a  guide  to  direct  him  in  his 
efforts  to  supply  his  soil  with  the  necessary  elements. 

49 


TABLE  NO.  1  ..  PLANT  FOOD  IN  STOCK  FEEDS 


Kind  of  Feed 

One  Ton  Contains 
Pounds  Nitrogen 

One  Ton  Contains 
Pounds  Phos.Acid 

One  Ton  Contains 
Pounds  Potash 

Clover  Hay 

Alfalfa 

Timothy  Hay           .      ... 

39.4 
50. 
18.8 
43. 
16. 
12. 
10. 
33. 
49.2 
108.4 
33. 
40. 
42. 
48. 

11. 

8. 

6.6 
10. 

4. 

4.2 

4.4 
14.2 
53.8 
33.2 
16. 
18. 
20. 
31. 

37.4 

24. 

28.4 

Cow  Pea  Hay 

33. 

Corn  Stover 

Oat  Straw 

17. 
21. 

Wheat  Straw 

12.6 

Corn 

Wheat  Bran 

Oil  Meal                   

11.4 
30.4 

27.4 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Wheat  Shorts 

11. 
11. 
13 
20. 

From  the  above  table,  the  farmer  can  easily  determine  the  manurial 
value  of  the  feeds  given  to  his  stock,  knowing  that  eighty  per  cent  of  the 
elements  contained  in  the  feed  is  found  in  the  manure. 

To  illustrate,  a  ton  of  corn  contains  33  pounds  of  nitrogen,  14.2  pounds 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  11.4  pounds  of  po.tash.  The  market  value  of 
the  elements  is  eighteen  to  twenty  cents  per  pound  for  nitrogen,  six  cents 
for  phosphoric  acid  and  five  cents  for  potash.     Therefore — 

The  nitrogen  would  be  worth $5.94 

The  phosphoric  acid  would  be  worth .85 

The  potash  would  be  worth .57 

Making  the  total  value $7. 36 

If  the  corn  is  fed  to  live-stock  and  the  manure  placed  in  the  soil, 
eighty  percent  of  the  fertility  removed  is  returned.  In  other  words, 
the  farmer  has  had  the  full  feeding  value  of  the  corn  and  $5.89  worth  of 
fertilizer  to  place  on  his  land. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  value  of  all  of  the  fertility  permanently 
removed  by  the  corn  is  only  $1.47  and  .81  percent  of  that  is  nitrogen, 
an  element  easily  replaced  by  planting  legumes.  The  above  figures 
show  that  only  28  cents'  worth  of  the  reserve  stock  of  potash  and  phos- 
phorous is  permanently  taken  from  the  soil  in  one  ton  of  corn. 

TABLE  NO.  2  ..  PLANT  FOOD  CONTAINED  IN  A  TON  OF  FEESH  DUNG 


Source  of  Manure 

Pounds  Nitrogen 

Pounds  Phos.Acid 

Pounds  Potash 

Horse . 

Cow 

Swine 

Sheep 

Poultry 

10 

6  to    9 
12  to  15 
15 
32 

7 

5  to    6 

9 
10  to  15 
30 

9 

9  to  10 

6.4 
11.8 
16  to  20 

60 


TABLE  NO.  3  ..  PLANT  FOOD  CONTAINED  IN  A  TON  OF  FRESH  URINE 

Source  of  Manure 

Pounds  Nitrogen 

Pounds  Phos.Acid 

Pounds  Potash 

Horse 

Cow 

Swine 

Sheep 

24. 

16. 

6. 

28. 

2"5 

1. 

30. 

28. 

4. 

40. 

A  ton  of  drainage  from  gutter  behind  milk  cows  contains — 

20  pounds  of  nitrogen 

5  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid 
17  pounds  of  potash 

Drainage  from  a  manure  heap  per  ton  contains — 

30  pounds  of  nitrogen 

2  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid 
98  pounds  of  potash 

Composition  of  Farm  Manure 

Barnyard  manure  is  composed  of  excrements,  urine  and  Utter.  The 
amount  of  plant  food  in  a  ton  depends  upon  the  amount  of  water  it  con- 
tains, the  kind  of  litter  used,  the  feed  given  the  animal  and  the  kind 
of  animal.     Average  barnyard  manure  contains  per  ton — 

10  pounds  of  nitrogen 

From    6  to    7  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid 

From  12  to  16  pounds  of  potash 

TABLE  NO.  4  ..    COMPOSITION  OF  LITTER  PER  TON 


Wheat,  Oat  &  Rye  Straw 

Barley  Straw 

Buckwheat  Straw 

Millet  Straw 

Marsh  Hay 

Leaves 


Pounds  Nitrogen 


9.6  to  12 
11.4 
13. 
14 

17  2 
15 


Pounds  Phos.Acid 


4.4  to  5 
5. 
7.1 
3.6 
10.6 
3  2 


Pounds  Potash 


16.4  to  23 
23.5 
24.2 
34. 
54 
6. 


61 


62 


The  following 
the  approximate 


table  compiled  from  Hopkins' 
maximum  amount  of  plant  food 


"Soil  Fertility,"  gives 
removed  from  the  soil: 


TABLE  NO.  5 


Product 

Quantity 

Pounds 
Nitrogen 

Pounds 
Phos.  Acid. 

Pounds 
Potash 

Tot.No.Lbs. 
Plant    Food 

Corn  Grain . 

Corn  Stover 

Total  Crop 

50  bu. 
3000  lbs. 

50 

24 

74 

8.5 
3 

11  5 

9.5 

26. 

35.5 

68. 
53. 

121. 

Oats  Grain 

Oat  Straw 

Total  Crop 

50  bu. 
2500  lbs. 

33. 
15  5 

48.5 

5.5 

2.5 

8. 

8. 
26. 

34. 

46.5 
44. 

90.5 

Wheat  Grain 

Wheat  Straw 

Total  Crop 

25  bu. 
2500  lbs. 

35.5 
12.5 

48. 

6. 

2. 

8. 

6  5 
22.5 

29. 

48. 
37. 

85. 

Cotton  Lint 

Cotton  Seed 

Cotton  Stalks 

Total  Crop 

500  lbs. 
1000  lbs. 
2000  lbs. 

1.5 
31.5 
51. 

84. 

0.2 
5.5 
9. 

14.7 

2. 
9.5 
29.5 

41. 

3.7 
46.5 
89.5 

139.7 

Potatoes 

150  bu. 

31.5 

6.5 

45. 

83. 

Sugar  Beets 

10  tons 

50. 

9. 

78.5 

137.5 

Apples 

300  bu. 

23.5 

2.5 

28.5 

54  5 

The  above  table  gives  the  amount  of  each  of  the  three  essential 
elements  removed  from  an  acre  of  soil  by  some  of  the  principal  farm 
crops. 

To  return  to  the  soil  all  of  the  plant  food  removed  and  some  addi- 
tional, the  farmer  should  apply  five  good  loads  or  tons  of  manure  to 
each  acre.  By  applying  more  than  five  tons,  the  fertility  will  be 
increased  proportionately.  It  will  be  remembered  that  a  ton  of  average 
barnyard  manure  contains — 

10  pounds  of  nitrogen 

From    6  to    7  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid 

From  12  to  16  pounds  of  potash 

Therefore,  five  tons  would  contain — 

50  pounds  of  nitrogen 

30  to  35  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid 

60  pounds  of  potash 

making  a  total  of  142.5  pounds  which  is  more  than  any  of  the  crops 
mentioned  in  the  foregoing  table  require.  While  the  corn  and  cotton 
crops  consume  more  nitrogen  than  is  returned  in  the  manure,  the  stalks 
of  both  plants  are  usually  left  on  the  ground  and  finally  worked  into 
the  seed-bed. 

S3 


54 


HUMUS 

THUS  far,  we  have  considered  only  the  plant  food  elements  con- 
tained in  manure.  Manure  has  another  value  of  greater  impor- 
tance which,  if  thoroughly  appreciated  by  the  farmer,  would  prompt 
him  to  make  stock-raising  a  prominent  feature  and  cause  him  to  preserve 
and  utilize  every  atom  of  everything  which  can  be  construed  as  manure, 
for  it  is  the  foundation  of  the  yeast  of  the  soil.  It  is  the  organic  sub- 
stance which  is  finally  resolved  into  humus. 

Value  of  Humus 

Humus  is  just  as  necessary  to  make  soil  fertile  as  water  is  to  make  lime 
and  sand  into  plaster.  Soil  which  is  barren  of  live  humus  is  as  unpro- 
ductive as  pure  sand.  The  value  of  humus  is  apparent,  but  the  chem- 
istry of  its  component  parts  is  not  thoroughly  understood. 

We  know,  however,  that  it  is  the  portion  of  organic  matter  found  in 
the  soil  which  is  in  a  partly-rotted  conditon. 

We  know  that  it  supplies  nitrogenous  plant  food  and  combines  with 
phosphorous,  potash  and  other  fertilizing  elements,  making  them  avail- 
able and  effective. 

We  know  that  it  furnishes  the  food  for  niter-forming  bacteria  which 
convert  it  into  nitrates,  an  available  form  of  organic  nitrogen. 

We  know  that  it  improves  the  phyiscal  condition  of  the  soil  by  mak- 
ing it  mellow  and  friable  and  gives  it  permeability  and  substance.  It 
also  assists  in  the  absorption  and  retention  of  moisture,  prevents  pud- 
dling, baking  and  cracking  and  renders  light  sandy  soils  productive 
and  clay  soils  tillable. 

It  influences  the  temperature  of  the  soil  to  a  marked  degree.  In  fact, 
it  is  the  one  great  substance  which  cannot  be  dispensed  with  in  our 
efforts  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Humus  must  be  renewed  from  time  to  time,  for  it  becomes  worthless 
in  soil  which  has  been  repeatedly  cropped  with  the  same  crop  or  like 
crops.  It  can  be  supplied,  renewed  and  kept  active  by  the  application 
of  barnyard  manure,  green  crops  plowed  under  and  rotation  of  crops. 
Intensive  methods  of  tillage  are  also  factors  in  keeping  humus  active. 
Soils  may  be  rich  in  potash,  phosphorous  and  other  inorganic  elements 
and  be  abandoned  as  "worn  out"  when,  in  fact,  they  need  only  humus  to 
make  them  very  productive.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that 
HUMUS  is  practically  worthless  in  unventilated,  water-logged  and 
sour  soils.     Such  soils  need  lime  and  drainage. 

Benefits  of  Manure  and  Crop  Rotation 

Manure  is  the  foundation  of  successful  agriculture  and  will  be  until 
the  laws  governing  plant  life  and  the  formation  of  plant  food  compounds 
are  changed. 

66 


Fertility  from  the  Manure  Pile  Filtering  Into  an  Adjacent  Stream 


66 


History  tells  us  that  Memphis,  the  first  great  city  of  ancient  times,  a 
city  which  controlled  the  civilized  world,  was  built  up  and  made 
powerful  because  of  the  fertility  of  the  farms,  made  so  by  the 
judicious  use  of  manures.  Nineveh,  Babylon,  Venice  and  other  ancient 
cities  grew  to  greatness  from  the  same  source  and  then  fell  to  the  pit  of 
destruction  when  the  farmers  ceased  to  observe  stock-raising  as  a  feature 
of  farming. 

America  today  is  the  foremost  commercial  nation  of  the  world,  but 
to  maintain  that  supremacy  we  must  produce  from  the  soil  food  to  feed 
our  people  and,  if  we  produce  a  surplus  for  other  nations,  our  power  will 
be  universal.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  disregard  nature's  exacting  laws 
which  govern  soil  maintenance,  history  will  repeat  itself  and  our  great 
commercial  institutions  will  be  crumbling  monuments  to  the  American 
farmer's  carelessness. 

The  history  of  "Farmers  of  Forty  Centuries,"  in  the  Orient  gives  us  a 
vivid  picture  of  the  successful  application  of  manures,  good  tillage  and 
rotation.  For  4200  years  the  fertility  of  those  lands  has  not  waned,  but 
increased  and  today  are  producing  four  and  five  times  as  much  as  the 
soils  of  our  own  country. 

If  every  farmer  could  read  "Farmers  of  Forty  Centuries,"  written  by 
Prof.  King,  he  would  be  so  impressed  with  the  results  of  the  systems 
described  that  he  would  not  ignore  a  single  feature  which  has  wrought 
such  remarkable  results. 

The  advent  of  the  dairy  cow  in  Wisconsin  was  the  beginning  of  a  new 
era  of  progress  in  the  Badger  State.  Her  soil,  because  of  continuous 
cropping,  the  neglect  of  systematic  rotation  and  the  application  of 
organic  matters  had  become  emaciated  and  her  vegetation  withered. 
Today  Wisconsin  stands  first  in  number  of  dairy  cows;  1,504,000  on  the 
farms  and  a  goodly  number  in  the  towns  and  cities  produced  last  year 
150,000,000  pounds  of  cheese,  about  one-half  of  all  the  cheese  manufac- 
tured in  the  United  States,  and  131,049,000  pounds  of  butter,  the  two 
products  having  a  market  value  of  $60,000,000.  The  increase  in  their 
superior  breeds  brought  the  total  products  close  to  $100,000,000. 

While  the  Wisconsin  farmer  has  secured  millions  of  dollars  from  his 
dairy  products,  he  has  reduced  plant  food  exhaustion  to  a  minimum  and, 
by  applying  manure  from  purchased  feeds,  planting  legumes  and  rotating 
crops,  has  increased  the  fertility  of  his  lands  to  a  remarkable  degree. 

From  eighty  to  eighty-two  percent  of  all  the  plant  food  removed  from 
the  soil  by  the  feeds  eaten  by  the  live-stock  is  returned  to  the  soil  in 
manures  and,  if  legumes  (especially  clover  and  alfalfa)  are  grown  in 
rotations  with  grains  and  corn,  the  loss  is  very  small.  Legumes  not  only 
secure  their  own  supply  of  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere,  but  a  consider- 
able amount  is  deposited  in  the  soil  through  roots  and  stubble,  leaving 
the  soil  richer  in  that  valuable  element  than  it  was  before  the  crop 
was  planted. 

67 


A  Cheaply  Constructed  Manure  Shed  Adjacent  to  the  Stable 

Prevents  the  Loss  of  Fertility 

6S 


Further,  the  deep  penetrating  roots  decay  and  thereby  act  upon 
dormant  potash  and  phosphorous  forming  plant-food  compounds, 
which  would  otherwise  remain  inactive  till  the  end  of  time. 

Wisconsin  has  in  a  few  years  become  the  Holland  of  America,  and  is  a 
splendid  example  for  farmers  to  follow. 

From  a  mathematical  standpoint,  it  is  very  clear  that  the  dairy  cow 
cannot  alone  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  If  butter  only  is  sold, 
the  loss  of  fertility  is  exceedingly  small,  but  when  the  milk,  cream  and 
cheese  is  sold,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent  of  the  plant  food  which 
goes  to  make  the  feed  for  the  cow  is  carried  away  from  the  farm.  The 
losses  can  be  overcome,  and  manifestly  they  are,  in  countries  where 
intensive  methods  are  pursued.  While  it  may  be  said  we  are  robbing 
Peter  to  pay  Paul,  it  is  nevertheless  customary  for  dairymen  to  buy 
feeds,  especially  some  of  the  concentrates,  from  sections  where  stock 
raising  is  not  profitable,  either  on  account  of  climatic  conditions  or 
because  of  diseases.  Many  cotton  growers,  for  instance,  do  not  raise 
stock,  but  depend  entirely  on  commercial  fertilizers  for  their  plant 
foods.  Also  a  small  per  cent  of  farmers  will  never  raise  stock,  even 
though  conditions  are  favorable,  but  will  farm  on  and  on,  selling  their 
grain  and  hay,  returning  nothing  to  the  soil  until  their  farms  become 
derelicts  and  are  consigned  to  the  scrap  pile.  The  plant  food  in  those 
purchased  feeds  goes  to  make  up  the  deficit. 

Again,  many  dairy  farmers  appreciate  the  fact  that  leaves,  moss  and 
peat,  all  rich  in  plant  food,  make  splendid  bedding  and  subsequently 
good  manure. 

We  know  that  legumes  more  than  keep  up  their  end  in ,  furnishing 
nitrogen  from  the  air  and  we  also  know  that  such  inorganic  elements  as 
phosphorous,  potash,  sulphur,  etc.,  are  not  confined  to  the  surface  seed- 
bed, but  are  found  in  abundance  in  the  deeper  subsoil,  far  below  the 
reach  of  the  plow  and  are  made  available  through  the  action  of  humus 
resulting  from  the  decayed  roots.  Plant  food  compounds  thus  formed 
in  the  deep  subsoils  are  brought  to  the  seed-bed  by  capillary  attraction, 
as  every  farmer  knows  who  has  grown  clover  and  other  deep-rooting 
plants  in  rotation  with  corn  and  small  grain. 

A  Reasonable  Conclusion 

In  view  of  our  resources  and  the  potential  inventiveness  of  man,  is  it 
not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  when  the  Creator  planned  this  planet, 
He,  in  some  way,  made  provision  to  sustain  the  living  world  until  the 
end  of  time  and  that  in  the  evolution  of  events,  as  necessity  demands, 
the  man  will  be  found  to  unfold  the  means  and  methods? 

We  know  oxygen  has  existed  for  an  indefinite  period,  but  it  is  only 
recently  that  we  have  fully  appreciated  the  fact  that  it  was  vital  to  the 
plant  roots  and  devised  means  of  placing  it  in  the  seed-bed. 

It  has  been  only  a  few  years  since  man  discovered  that  clover  and 


60 


other  legumes  possessed  the  power  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  fix 
it  in  the  soil. 

We  have  just  learned  that  rains,  after  a  dry  spell,  wash  from  the 
atmosphere  with  every  gallon  of  water  more  than  one-half  grain  of 
ammonia  containing  one-half  grain  of  nitrogen,  and  deposit  it  in  the 
soil,  provided  the  soil  is  in  a  good  physical  condition  and  contains 
humus. 

Other  powerful  forces  exist  in  nature  of  which  we  know  little.  The 
ingenuity  of  man  will,  however,  when  necessity  demands,  devise  means 
and  methods  to  utilize  them  which  are  as  simple  as  the  clover,  alfalfa, 
cow  peas,  etc.,  are  means  to  secure  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere. 

Knowing,  as  we  do,  that  life  has  been  sustained  for  millions  of  years 
from  the  soil  and  other  forces  in  nature,  we  are  just  optimistic  enough  to 
believe  that  if  we  will  utilize  scientifically  such  means  and  methods  as 
have  been  unfolded  to  us  and  will  do  our  part  to  solve  new  problems,  we 
will  not  want. 

Preserving  Manure 

Does  it  pay  to  preserve  manure?  Does  it  pay  to  harvest  your  grain, 
husk  your  corn  and  store  your  hay?  The  first  question  is  no  less  impor- 
tant than  the  second. 

Manure  has  a  commercial  value  based  upon  the  amount  of  nitrogen, 
phosphorous  and  potash  it  contains. 

It  has  an  auxiliary  value  in  the  organic  substance  which  is  equal  to 
the  plant  food  elements. 

According  to  our  best  authorities,  the  value  of  manure  is  as  follows: 

Cattle $2  .  02  per  ton 

Horse 2. 21  per  ton 

Hog 3.29  per  ton 

Sheep 3.30  per  ton 

Chicken 7  .  07  per  ton 

Liquid 7. 00  per  ton 

The  above  values  do  not  include  the  value  of  the  organic  substance. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  Farmer's  Bulletin 
No.  21  estimates  that,  if  the  manure  from  live-stock  is  preserved,  its 
value  each  year  is  as  follows: 

Horse  Manure $27  00 

Cattle  Manure 19  .  00 

Hog  Manure 12  00 

Sheep  Manure 2.00 

The  ideal  way  to  preserve  manure  in  order  to  prevent  waste  is  to 
spread  while  in  a  fresh  state  directly  on  the  land.  When  that  is  done, 
there  is  no  loss  from  leaching  or  evaporation  and  very  little  from  wash- 
ing. 

When  conditions  prevent  the  farmer  from  hauling  it  direct  to  the 
fields,  he  should  use  care  to  prevent  losses. 

Manure  wastes  in  two  ways — leaching  and  evaporation. 

61 


If  carelessly  left  in  the  yard  or  in  piles  unprotected,  a  large  per  cent  is 
lost  by  leaching  and  washing  away.  That  liquid  is  just  as  precious  as 
the  golden  grain  in  the  bin  and,  if  it  is  lost,  the  land  is  deprived  of  its 
just  portion  of  food. 

If  manure  is  piled  and  not  protected,  it  loses  much  of  its  nitrogen 
through  fermentation.  Fermentation  is  carried  on  by  two  kinds  of 
organisms — aerobic  and  anaerobic.  The  first  variety  is  active  only 
where  free  oxygen  exists,  as  in  the  loose  part  of  manure.  The  other 
variety  is  the  opposite,  working  only  where  no  oxygen  exists.  The 
anaerobic  bacteria  are  less  harmful  than  the  aerobic.  When  aerobic 
fermentation  is  completed,  gases  such  as  ammonia,  carbon-dioxide  and 
allied  gases  are  lost.  The  loss  in  nitrogen  is  the  most  important,  as 
seven-eighths  of  the  ammonia  gas  is  nitrogen. 

Composting 

If  the  heap  is  kept  compact  and  thoroughly  wet,  oxygen  is  excluded 
and  the  loss  is  not  great,  providing  there  is  no  leaching.  If  the  manure 
is  stored  in  a  tight-bottom  pit  or  cement  bin,  kept  moist  and  a  quantity 
of  gypsum,  kainit  or  raw  rock  phosphate  is  sprinkled  on  from  time  to 
time  as  the  pit  is  filled,  the  loss  will  be  very  slight.  A  layer  of  earth 
placed  over  the  pile  will  also  prevent  the  escape  of  gases. 

Extensive  experiments  made  by  Roberts  show  that  the  loss  from  expo- 
sure and  leaching  amounts  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  value  of 
fresh  manure,  or  manure  that  has  been  protected.  Horse  manure 
placed  in  a  pile  and  subjected  to  the  weather  and  leaching,  depreciates 

as  follows:  TABLE  NO.  6 


April  25th 
Pounds 

Sept.  25th 
Pounds 

Loss 
Percent 

Gross  Weight 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash 

Value  per  ton 

4,000 
19.60 
14.80 
36.00 
$2.80 

1,730 
7.79 
7.79 
8.65 

$1.06 

57 
60 
47 
76 

A  similar  experiment  with  cow  manure  conducted  at  the  same  time 
showed  the  following  losses: 


TABLE  NO 

.  7 

April  25th 
Pounds 

Sept.  25th 
Pounds 

Loss 
Percent 

Gross  Weight 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash 

Value  per  ton 

10,000 

47 

32 

48 

$2.29 

5,125 

28 

26 

44 
$1.60 

49 
41 
19 

8 

63 


The  foregoing  table  is  a  fair  example  of  the  losses  sustained  by  most 
of  our  farmers  by  not  properly  handling  and  protecting  manure.  It  is 
estimated  by  the  Agricultural  Department  of  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment that  $2,000,000,000.00  worth  of  fertiUty  is  lost  annually 
through  carelessness. 

How  to  Spread  Manure  on  the  Land 

In  spreading  manure,  the  farmer  is  naturally  anxious  to  accomplish 
two  things — 

First,  to  secure  the  full  benefit  of  the  plant  food  and  humus. 

Second,  to  do  the  work  as  cheaply  as  possible. 

Suppose  we  just  analyze  the  various  methods  resorted  to  and  see 
what  the  net  results  are. 

Farmer  A  hauls  the  manure  to  the  field  and  dumps  it  in  piles  contain- 
ing from  one  to  two  hundred  pounds  each  and  later  spreads  it,  usually 
just  ahead  of  the  plow. 

Farmer  B  hauls  his  to  the  field  and  spreads  it  with  a  hand  fork  from 
the  wagon. 

Farmer  C  uses  a  manure  spreader. 

Farmer  A  has  made  piles  about  two  rods  apart.  The  top  of  the  pile  is 
loose,  permitting  the  free  circulation,  of  air  and  at  the  same  time  com- 
pact enough  to  cause  fermentation.  The  aerobic  bacteria  convert  the 
organic  matter  into  ammonia,  carbon  dioxide  and  other  gases  which 
readily  pass  into  the  air.  The  result  is  a  great  loss  of  the  nitrogen  in 
the  upper  two-thirds  of  the  pile.  In  case  of  rains,  much  of  the  plant 
food  in  the  bottom  of  the  pile  percolates  into  the  soil  which  is  evidenced 
in  the  rank  growth  of  vegetation  where  the  pile  laid,  a  condition  we  have 
all  seen  a  thousand  times.  Under  such  conditions,  the  stand  is  uneven 
and  the  crop  ripens  unevenly.  The  practice  of  placing  manure  in  piles 
is  absolutely  wrong  if  profitable  results  are  expected.  The  cost  of 
spreading  a  ton  will  be  found  in  Table  No.  9. 

Farmer  B  does  a  little  better.  He  hauls  his  load  to  the  field  and 
spreads  it  the  best  he  can  with  a  hand  fork  from  the  wagon.  He  saves 
most  of  the  fertility  and  makes  an  effort  to  thoroughly  distribute  the 
coarse  substance  of  the  mass.  After  he  has  done  the  best  he  can, 
the  distribution  is  uneven.  If  the  manure  is  left  in  bunches  and  sub- 
sequently plowed  under,  the  capillary  movement  of  water  in  the  soil  is 
materially  affected  on  account  of  the  large  air  spaces  made  by  the 
bunches.  Such  a  condition  proves  disastrous  to  the  crop  in  case  of 
drought.  If  the  distribution  of  organic  matter  is  uneven,  the  inorganic 
elements  will  not  be  uniformly  treated  and  the  plant  food  will  be 
unevenly  placed  throughout  the  seed-bed. 

Farmer  C  uses  a  spreader.  When  asked,  "Why?"  he  replied:  "A 
ton  of  average  manure  contains  from  twenty-seven  to  thirty  pounds  of 
plant  food,  and  I  want  an  even  distribution  of  that  precious  material  in 

66 


66 


order  to  secure  a  uniform  growth.  I  know  the  value  of  humus.  It 
warms  the  soil,  it  causes  soil  to  absorb  and  hold  moisture,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  humus  if  I  have  nitrogen,  it  makes  my  soil  mellow  and  of  good 
tilth,  and  I  believe  it  assists  in  making  phosphorous  and  potash  useful. 
In  order  to  accomplish  those  things,  I  want  the  manure  evenly  spread  so 
that  I  can  work  it  thoroughly  into  the  body  of  the  seed-bed.  Those 
are  some  of  my  reasons  for  using  a  spreader.  Another  reason  is  that  the 
spreader  saves  money." 

Farmer  C  is  a  good  farmer.  He  increases  his  crop,  as  has  been 
repeatedly  demonstrated,  and  he  saves  money  by  doing  his  work  much 
faster  than  either  Farmer  A  or  Farmer  B. 

The  following  test  was  made  under  the  writer's  supervision  and  is  cer- 
tified to  by  a  committee  of  honest  disinterested  farmers. 

It  required  Farmer  A  twenty-one  minutes  to  load  one  ton  of  manure. 
He  spent  eleven  and  one-half  minutes  going  to  the  field  and  returning 
and  he  spent  thirty-two  minutes  in  unloading  the  manure  in  piles  and 
spreading  it  on  the  land. 

Farmer  B  loaded  his  wagon  in  twenty-one  minutes,  drove  to  the  field 
and  returned  in  eleven  and  one-half  minutes,  and  spent  twenty-eight 
minutes  in  spreading  the  manure  from  the  wagon. 

Farmer  C  loaded  his  spreader  in  sixteen  minutes,  drove  to  the 
field  and  returned  in  eleven  and  one-half  minutes,  and  spread  the 
manure  on  the  land  evenly  and  thoroughly  pulverized  in  two  minutes. 

The  net  comparative  results  were  as  follows: 

TABLE  NO.  8 


Time  loading 

Time  going  to  field  and  returning 

Time  unloading  in  piles  and  spreading 

Time  spreading  from  wagon 

Time  spreading  with  spreader 

Total  time  required 


Farmer  "A' 


21 
32 


641 


Farmer  "B" 

21 
11' 

28" 
60i 


Farmer  "C 


16 


2 
291 


Cost  of  Handling  One  Load 


TABLE  NO.  9 


VALUE  OF  TIME  OF  MAN  AND  TEAM  VALUED  AT 
40  CENTS  PER  HOUR 


Farmer  A.  44  cents 


Farmer  B,  40  cents 


Farmer  C,  20  cents 


Farmer  A  would  haul  9  3  loads  in  one  day,  working  10  hours  a  day 
Farmer  B  would  haul  9  9  loads  in  one  day,  working  10  hours  a  day 
Farmer  C  would  haul  20  .3  loads  in  one  day,  working  10  hours  a  day 

It  costs  Farmer  A  $88.00  to  haul  and  spread  200  loads  of  manure 
It  costs  Farmer  B  $80  00  to  haul  and  spread  200  loads  of  manure 
It  costs  Farmer  C  $40.00  to  haul  and  spread  200  loads  of  manure 

It  costs  Farmer  A  $48.00  more  to  dispose  of  200  loads  than  it  does 
Farmer  C,  and  it  costs  Farmer  B  $40.00  more  than  it  does  Farmer  C. 


67 


Millions  of  Dollars  Worth  of  Fertility  is  Wasted  Annually  by 
These  Brownies 


68 


Increasing  the  Yield 


While  the  saving  to  the  farmer  by  using  the  manure  spreader  is  mate- 
rial, it  is  insignificant  as  compared  to  the  increased  yield  in  crops,  which 
is  shown  in  the  following  table.  The  table  showing  the  increase  in  pro- 
duction where  manure  is  applied  over  that  where  no  manure  is  applied, 
is  also  worthy  of  the  farmer's  attention. 

Repeated  trials  extending  over  a  number  of  years  have  demonstrated 
the  fact  that  a  manure  spreader  used  on  forty  acres  of  land  will  more 
than  pay  the  cost  of  the  machine  in  one  season  by  increasing  the  crop, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  great  saving  in  labor. 

The  experiments  of  Mr.  Chesney  Hatch,  of  Newton  County,  Ind.,  are 
strictly  in  keeping  with  hundreds  of  other  like  trials.  Mr.  Hatch  ex- 
perimented by  spreading  manure  on  twenty  acres  and  at  the  same  time 
compared  the  results  with  crops  raised  on  similar  land  without  manure. 

The  results  of  his  experiments  given  in  the  following  table  should 
cause  the  farmer  to  seriously  consider  the  great  value  of  a  spreader. 

TABLE  NO.  10  ..  MANURE  SPREAD  WITH  A  SPREADER 


Kind 

of 
Grain 

Number 

of 

Acres 

Time 
Planted 

Amount 
Harv'st'd 

Loads  of 
Manure 
Per  Acre 

Value 

of 
Crop 

Value  of 

Crop  per 

Acre 

Corn 

Oats 

Clover 

10 
10 
10 

May  5th 
April  6th 
April  6th 

620  bu. 
560  bu. 
30  tons 

5 
5 

4 

$248.00 
156.80 
150.00 

$24.80 
15.68 
15.00 

TABLE 

NO.  11  ..  MANURE  SPREAD  BY  HAND 

Kind 

of 
Grain 

Corn 

Oats 

Clover 


Number 

of 

Acres 


10 
10 
10 


Time 
Planted 

May  4th 
April  6th 
April  6th 


Amount 
Harv'st'd 


500  bu. 
420  bu. 
21  tons 


Loads  of 
Manure 
Per  Acre 


Value 

of 
Crop 


$200  00 
117.60 
105.00 


Value  of 

Crop  per 

Acre 


$20.00 
11  76 
10.50 


TABLE  NO 

12   ..   CROP 

RAISED  WITHOUT  MANURE 

Kind 

of 
Grain 

Number 

of 

Acres 

Time 
Planted 

Loads  of 
Amount   ,    Manure 
Harv'st'd     Per  Acre 

Value 

of 
Crop 

Value  of 

Crop  per 

Acre 

Corn   __ 

5 
5 

5 

May  6th 
April  6th 
April  9th 

200  bu.           None 

$  80  00 
53.20 
37.50 

$16.00 

Oats 

Clover 

190  bu. 
1-2  tons 

None 
None 

10  64 
7.50 

70 


The  manure  spreader  secured  a  gain  over  hand  spreading  in  the 
com  crop  of  $4.80  per  acre,  or  $192.00  on  forty  acres.  In  oats,  the 
spreader  has  a  credit  of  $3.92  per  acre  over  hand  spreading,  or  $156.80 
for  forty  acres.  In  clover,  the  gain  was  $2.00  per  acre.  Manured  land 
made  a  gain  over  unmanured  land  of  $8.80  per  acre  on  corn,  $5.04  on 
oats  and  $7.50  on  clover. 

Note — (Corn  was  valued  at  40  cents  per  bushel,  oats  at  28  cents  and 
clover  at  $5.00  per  ton.) 

Mr.  Lawrence  Enzminger  of  Platte  Center,  Nebraska,  made  the  fol- 
lowing report: 

"We  manured  forty  acres  with  a  spreader  and  an  adjoining  thirty 
acres  received  no  manure.  The  forty  acres  averaged  forty-eight  bushels 
of  corn  per  acre,  and  the  thirty  acres  averaged  thirty-nine  bushels  per 
acre.  The  gain  in  favor  of  the  manured  field  was  nine  bushels  per  acre, 
or  three  hundred  and  sixty  bushels  on  the  forty  acres.  The  corn  sold 
for  fifty  cents  per  bushel,  or  $180.00,  much  more  than  the  cost  of  the 
spreader." 

The  following  is  the  average  results  of  other  experiments  carried  on 
for  a  period  of  three  years  to  determine  the  advantage  of  a  machine 
spreader  over  the  hand  fork: 

TABLE  NO.  13 


Acres 

Amount 
Raised 

Crop 

Price 

Value 

Total 
Gain 

Spreader 6 

Hand  Spreading         6 

Spreader 10 

Hand  Spreading       10 

420  bu. 

336  bu. 
35  tons 
27  tons 

Corn 

Corn 

Meadow 

Meadow 

$      .50 

.50 

10.00 

10.00 

$210.00 
168.00 
350  00 
270.00 

$42-00 
'80^00 

Total  gain  for  manure  spreader  over  hand  work  on  six  acres  of  corn 
and  ten  of  meadow  in  one  year  was  $122.00. 

The  gain  made  in  all  the  crops  where  the  spreader  was  used  over  land 
where  no  manure  was  applied  is  so  marked  that  a  farmer  cannot 
afford  to  ignore  the  value  of  this  fertilizer  or  the  most  profitable  way  to 
apply  it. 

The  farmer  should  also  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  manure  is  lasting, 
if  properly  distributed  and  thoroughly  worked  into  the  soil.  At  the 
Rothamsted  Experiment  Station,  records  have  been  kept  for  over  fifty 
years  as  to  the  effects  of  manures  upon  soils.  In  one  experiment,  farm 
manure  was  used  for  twenty  years  and  then  discontinued  foi'  the  same 
period.  It  was  observed  that  when  its  use  was  discontinued,  there  was 
a  gradual  decline  in  crop-producing  power,  but  not  so  rapid  as  of  plots 
where  no  manure  had  been  used.  The  manure  applied  during  the 
twenty-year  period  made  itself  felt  for  an  ensuing  twenty  years. 


71 


72 


Top  Dressing 

Without  question,  the  best  results  are  obtained  from  manure  when  it 
is  used  as  a  top  dressing  after  the  ground  has  been  plowed.  The  reasons 
are  very  plain. 

Plant  roots  necessarily  make  their  initial  growth  in  the  upper  portion 
of  the  seed-bed.  A  rapid  and  strong  early  growth  is  usually  reflected 
throughout  the  entire  life  of  the  plant.  If  the  plant  food  is  accessible 
to  the  young  roots,  the  growth  will  be  very  rapid.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
the  fertilizing  elements  are  near  the  bottom  of  the  seed-bed,  the  early 
benefits  are  not  so  marked.  If  the  ground  is  plowed  early  in  the  fall,  it 
usually  becomes  compact  after  the  first  rain  so  that  it  is  not  difficult  to 
haul  the  spreader  over  the  plowed  ground.  Even  if  the  ground  is  frozen, 
there  is  nothing  lost  by  spreading  the  manure  and  discing  it  in  after  the 
frost  is  out. 

If  coarse  manure  is  plowed  under,  it  is  apt  to  create  large  air  spaces  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  thereby  causing  an  insulation  which  retards 
the  upward  movement  of  capillary  water.  Even  though  manure  is 
spread  before  the  ground  is  plowed,  it  is  always  advisable  to  disc  it  in 
before  plowing.  By  that  process  lumps  of  dirt  are  pulverized  and  the 
substance  of  the  manure  is  worked  into  the  soil.  When  the  furrow 
slice  is  turned,  the  contact  is  compact  between  the  bottom  of  the  furrow 
and  the  furrow  slice,  making  capillary  attraction  perfect. 

It  is  hardly  feasible,  especially  if  the  ground  is  very  soft,  to  top-dress 
spring  plowing,  but  it  is  very  essential  if  the  ground  is  to  be  planted  to 
corn  to  disc  it  thoroughly  after  the  manure  is  applied  and  before  plowing 
in  order  to  insure  equal  distribution  and  quick  fermentation. 

Manuring  Growing  Crops 

In  some  sections  of  the  country,  especially  where  spring  wheat  is  the 
principal  crop,  farmers  do  not  have  time  to  haul  manure  until  after  the 
grain  is  in  the  ground.  Again,  yard  manure,  especially  that  which  is  in 
large  piles,  remains  frozen  until  after  the  wheat  is  planted;  hence,  in 
order  to  secure  the  full  benefits,  the  manure  should  be  distributed  on  the 
ground  after  the  grain  is  sown.  It  is  perfectly  feasible  to  spread  it  either 
before  the  blade  has  shown  above  the  ground  or  after  it  has  attained  a 
growth  of  one  or  two  inches.  By  distributing  it  thinly  and  evenly,  the 
young  roots,  which  are  necessarily  close  to  the  surface,  receive  the 
essence  of  fertility  contained  in  the  manure,  at  a  time  when  they  need  it 
most. 

Winter  wheat  and  rye  can  be  top-dressed  either  during  the  fall,  winter 
or  early  spring.  If  manure  is  applied  late  in  the  fall,  it  is  of  material 
assistance  in  preventing  the  grain  from  winter-killing.  The  coarser 
substance  of  the  manure  serves  two  purposes,  namely,  to  prevent  the 
surface  from  cracking,  thereby  preventing  the  escape  of  moisture,  and  to 
assist  in  absorbing  rain.     It  also  in  a  great  measure,  prevents  the  soil 

73 


from  blowing,  thereby  uncovering  the  grain  roots.  The  plant  food  con- 
tained in  the  coarser  substance  is  not  lost,  but  when  plowed  under,  is 
beneficial  to  the  following  crop,  not  only  because  of  the  plant  food  it 
contains,  but  for  the  humus  which  it  forms  after  it  has  become  thor- 
oughly rotted. 

Farmers  who  have  top-dressed  growing  grain  are  very  enthusiastic  in 
their  praise  of  the  system,  many  claiming  that  they  obtained  far  better 
results  than  when  applied  in  any  other  way. 

Top-dressing  growing  corn  and  potatoes  is  also  very  beneficial.  If, 
however,  the  crops  are  to  be  cultivated  after  the  application  has  been 
made,  the  manure  should  be  well  rotted.  It  is  especially  beneficial  to 
potatoes  after  they  have  been  cultivated  once  or  twice,  by  preventing 
the  growth  of  weeds  and  the  escape  of  moisture.  Top-dressing  pastures 
and  meadows  always  stimulates  the  growth.  In  a  number  of  instances 
the  writer  has  seen  the  yield  of  hay  doubled  by  the  application  of  five 
tons  of  manure  to  an  acre. 

Green  Manures 

Green  manuring  is  growing  on  the  land  a  crop  and  plowing  it  under. 
This  form  of  manuring  adds  no  new  inorganic  plant  food  elements  to  the 
soil,  but  when  a  crop  is  turned  under  all  of  the  elements  or  compounds 
consumed  in  the  growth  of  the  plant  are  returned  to  the  soil.  When 
legumes  (alfalfa,  cow  peas,  clover,  soy  beans,  vetch,  etc.),  are  plowed 
under,  the  nitrogen  gathered  from  the  air  by  the  legumes  is  added  to  the 
soil.  After  the  crop  is  removed,  the  soil  is  much  richer  in  nitrogen  than 
before  the  crop  was  planted,  due  to  nitrogen  in  the  roots  and  stubble. 

Vaelcker  in  England  found  that  one  acre  of  clover  roots  and  stubble 
contained  one  hundred  pounds  of  nitrogen  which  had  been  gathered 
from  the  atmosphere  in  excess  of  the  amount  removed  in  the  crop  and 
the  amount  in  the  soil  before  the  clover  was  planted. 

Weiske  in  Germany  found  one  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  of  nitrogen 
in  an  acre  of  roots  and  stubble. 

Any  green  crop  which  is  not  taken  off  the  land  is  beneficial  to  the  soil, 
both  from  a  physical  and  chemical  standpoint.  Physically,  the 
improvement  is  due  to  the  roots  and  stems  which  decay  and  become  a 
part  of  the  soil.  When  the  roots  die  and  the  plant  decays,  the  entire 
substance  is  finally  resolved  into  humus,  an  essential  factor  in  maintain- 
ing soil  bacteria  and  nitrogen.  Humus  thus  formed  assists  in  absorbing 
and  retaining  moisture,  and  tends  to  make  the  soil  mellow  and  friable. 

The  necessity  of  renewing  humus  may  be  due  to  continued  cropping, 
hot  winds  and  protracted  droughts  which  deplete  the  soil  of  that  essen- 
tial substance  very  rapidly. 

Again,  humus  in  time  becomes  dead,  especially  if  thorough  tillage  is 
not  practiced;  hence,  the  supply  should  be  renewed  as  often  as  condi- 
tions demand  it,  either  by  plowing  under  green  crops  or  by  applying 
manure. 

74 


Chemically,  green  manuring  is  beneficial  for  the  following  very  good 
reasons. 

Through  the  process  of  fermentation  and  decomposition  of  green 
manure,  humates  are  formed  which  in  combination  with  other  elements 
in  the  soil  form  plant  food  compounds. 

The  deep-rooting  legumes  are  especially  beneficial,  for  the  reason 
that  they  decay,  admitting  moisture  and  air  far  below  the  reach  of  the 
plow,  forming  as  they  do  plant  food  by  combining  with  the  inorganic 
elements  that  exist  in  the  subsoils.  Plant  food  thus  formed  in  the 
deeper  strata  is  brought  to  the  seed-bed  through  the  action  of  capillary 
water.  This  process  is  responsible  for  the  great  increase  in  crops  fol- 
lowing clover  and  other  deep-rooting  plants. 

Green  manuring  is  resorted  to  profitably  in  sections  where  stock- 
raising  is  not  practiced  to  an  extent  sufficient  to  secure  an  abundance  of 
barnyard  manure.  Dead  vegetation  plowed  under  is  also  beneficial,  but 
owing  to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  moisture  contained  in  the  plant  has 
evaporated,  decomposition  is  slow. 

Next  to  legumes,  rye  is  regarded  as  the  best  green  crop  to  plow  under. 
The  following  table,  the  result  of  experiments  on  light  soil  in  Germany, 
is  very  interesting: 

TABLE  NO.  14  ..  INCREASE  IN  THE  YIELD  OP  RYE  PER  ACRE  ON  GREEN 
MANURED  PLOTS  OVER  THOSE  NOT  GREEN  MANURED 


Kind  of  Green  Manure 

Date  When 
Plowed  Under 

Increase  in 
Grain,  Pounds 

Increase  in 
Straw,  Pounds 

Yellow  Lupine 

Sept.  28th 
Sept.  28th 
Sept.  28th 
Sept.  28th 
Sept.  28th 

1,101 
1,343 
1,352 
903 
1,077 

1,261 

Blue  Lupine 

White  Lupine 

Crimson  Clover 

Vetch 

1,963 
2,137 
1,620 
2,122 

Prof.  Neale  of  the  Delaware  Experimental  Station  presents  the  fol- 
lowing: 

"8.3  tons  of  crimson  clover,  grown  from  seed  which  cost  $1.00  per 
acre,  added  24  bushels  to  the  corn  crop;  $1.00  invested  in  nitrate  of  soda 
and  used  as  a  top-dressing,  added  6  bushels  to  the  corn  crop.  Hence,  in 
this  case,  $1.00  invested  in  clover  seed  returned  four  times  as  much  as 
$1.00  invested  in  nitrate  of  soda.  As  to  the  relative  amount  of  labor 
involved,  the  sowing  of  the  seed  and  the  broadcasting  of  the  nitrate  of 
soda  possibly  balance  each  other." 


76 


The  following  favorable  results  are  reported  from  a  heavy  soil  in 
Germany: 

TABLE  NO.  15  ..  YIELD  OF  OATS  AND  STRAW  PER  ACRE  WITH 
DIFFERENT  MANURING 


Treatment 

Grain,  Pounds 

Straw,  Pounds 

Without  Green  Manuring,  no  Fertilizer 

Green  Manuring,  no  Fertilizer 

1,099 
1,645 

1,748 
3,381 

The  following  table,  given  by  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station, 
is  very  interesting: 

TABLE  NO.  16  ..  COW  PEAS  AND  SOT  BEANS  FOR  GREEN  MANURING 


Pounds  Per  Acre 

Variety 

Green  Weight 

Dry  Matter 

Nitrogen 

Wonderful  Cow  Pea 

Black  Cow  Pea 

Medium  Green  Soy  Bean 

19,600 
20,035 
19,685 

3,622 
3,389 
5,386 

80.4 

62.1 

167.3 

COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS 

COMMERCIAL  fertilizers  are  used  very  extensively  by  truck  garden- 
ers, fruit  growers  and  farmers  in  the  sections  of  the  country  where 
manure  cannot  be  secured  in  sufficient  quantities. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  classed  as  complete  fertilizers  and  amend- 
ments. A  complete  commercial  fertilizer  contains  the  three  essential 
plant  food  elements  in  a  concentrated  form,  namely,  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potassium.  An  amendment  may  be  any  one  of  those 
elements. 

In  order  to  secure  the  best  results  and  to  minimize  losses,  the  farmer 
should  know  the  needs  of  his  soil.  He  should  not  only  know  the  plant 
food  requirements,  but  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  physical  con- 
dition of  his  land.  Otherwise,  he  is  apt  to  apply  some  of  the  elements 
which  already  exist  in  abundance,  or  the  fault  may  be  in  poor  tillage, 
need  of  drainage  or  lack  of  humus. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  manufactured  from  various  substances, 
both  organic  and  inorganic. 

Nitrogen  is  secured  from  sulphate  of  ammonia,  nitrate  of  soda, 
nitrate  of  potash,  dried  blood,  tankage,  hoof  and  horn  meal,  ground  fish, 
guanos,  cotton-seed  meal  and  a  few  other  minor  substances. 

76 


The  sources  of  phosphoric  acid  are  phosphate  rock,  phosphate  slag, 
raw  bone,  bone  ash,  steamed  bone,  bone  black  and  guano.  These  sub- 
stances are  treated  chemically,  rendering  them  soluble. 

Potash  is  secured  from  kainit,  muriate  of  potash,  sulphate  of  potash 
and  other  potash  salts  and  wood  ashes. 

The  percentage  of  amounts  of  available  plant  food  elements  in  a  com- 
plete commercial  fertilizer  is  usually  marked  on  the  package.  In  most 
states  the  inspection  is  quite  rigid. 

To  the  credit  of  the  standard  commercial  fertilizer  firms,  it  has  been 
found,  upon  analysis,  that  the  amount  specified  in  the  formula  is  found 
in  the  fertilizer.     To  illustrate,  a  package  weighing  one  hundred  pounds 

containing — 

5  per  cent  of  nitrogen 

7  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid 

6  per  cent  of  potash 

would  contain  respectively — 

5  pounds  of  nitrogen 

7  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid 

6  pounds  of  potash 

The  market  price  of  nitrogen  ranges  from  17  cents  to  20  cents  per 
pound,  phosphoric  acid  is  worth  about  6  cents  per  pound,  and  potash  is 
worth  5  cents  per  pound. 

The  balance  of  the  mass,  amounting  to  82  pounds,  is  called  filler,  hav- 
ing no  fertilizing  value. 

It  is  not  policy  to  apply,  at  one  time,  more  available  plant  food  in  a 
commercial  fertilizer  than  the  plant  requires  for  the  one  crop. 

It  is  not  profitable  to  use  commercial  fertihzers  on  land  which  is  bar- 
ren of  humus. 

Barnyard  manures  make  commercial  fertilizers  more  effective  and 
more  lasting. 

Attachments  are  made  for  agricultural  implements  for  distributing 
fertilizers.  The  material  can  be  deposited  in  the  hill,  along  the  side  of 
the  row  or  broadcast.  The  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  advisable  to 
sow  the  fertilizer  broadcast  and  work  it  into  the  seed-bed  with  the  disc. 


77 


78 


LIME 

LIME  is  classed  as  an  indirect  fertilizer.     While  it  is  not  regarded  as 
a  plant  food,  it  is  just  as  essential  to  plant  life  and  growth  as  nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid  or  potash. 

A  very  small  per  cent  of  lime  is  found  in  grains,  but  a  considerable 
amount  is  found  in  the  substance  of  the  plant. 

If  a  seed  is  planted  in  soil  absolutely  devoid  of  lime,  the  growth  is 
checked  as  soon  as  the  lime  is  exhausted  from  the  seed.  If  a  soil  is  defi- 
cient in  lime,  the  plant  is  correspondingly  deficient.  There  are  a  few 
plants,  however,  which  do  not  require  lime. 

Soil  may  be  rich  in  all  of  the  essential  elements,  namely,  nitrogen, 
phosphorous  and  potash  and  still  be  worthless  for  agricultural  purposes 
if  it  does  not  contain  a  sufficient  amount  of  lime. 

Clovers  and  other  legumes  grown  in  such  soil  are  stunted  and  the 
leaves  are  yellow  and  sickly. 

Alfalfa  without  lime  will  hardly  survive  after  the  first  year  and  cow 
peas,  soy  beans  and  vetch  are  a  failure  where  lime  is  absent. 

Com  grown  on  land  which  does  not  contain  a  reasonable  amount  of 
lime  will  have  small,  long-jointed  stalks,  small,  delicate  leaves  and  a  defi- 
cient ear. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  productiveness  of  many  of  our  fertile  farms  is 
reduced  fifty  per  cent  simply  because  they  do  not  contain  the  required 
amount  of  lime. 

Originally,  most  of  our  soils  contained  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lime, 
but  on  account  of  continued  cropping,  it  has,  to  a  great  degree  in  many 
soils,  been  reduced  to  such  an  extent  that  the  soil  is  unhealthy. 

Unless  the  natural  supply  of  lime  in  the  soil  is  abnormally  large,  the 
drain  incident  to  cultivation  and  fertilization  exhausts  it  to  a  point 
where  not  enough  remains  to  keep  the  soil  in  a  healthy  condition;  or,  in 
other  words,  free  from  harmful  acid. 

Every  farmer  knows  that  a  sour  soil  is  sickly  and  he  should  know 
that,  unless  the  condition  is  remedied,  it  will  not  produce  even  fair 
crops.    - 

Lime  acts  both  chemically  and  physically. 

Chemically,  it  is  the  most  powerful  agent  known  to  sweeten  sour  soil. 
Soil  becomes  sour;  or,  in  other  words,  harmful  acid  is  formed,  it  being 
the  result  of  decaying  vegetable  matter. 

Lime  unites  with  the  organic  matter  forming  humate  of  lime,  thus 
preventing  the  formation  of  any  harmful  acid. 

Nitrifying  bacteria  which  form  nitrates,  an  available  form  of  organic 
nitrogen,  will  not  live  in  acid  or  sour  soil. 

Nitrogen  does  not  combine  with  phosphorous,  potash  and  other  inor- 
ganic base  elements  without  the  assistance  of  lime. 

Lime  renders  potash  in  the  soil  more  available.     The  soil  may  be  rich 

79 


in  insoluble  silicates  containing  potash  and  still  be  starving  for  soluble 
potash.  Lime  decomposes  the  soil  silicates,  thus  setting  the  potash 
free. 

"The  presence  of  sufficient  lime  in  the  soil  prevents  the  soluble  phos- 
phoric acid  applied  in  fertilizers  from  satisfying  its  hunger  for  a  base  by- 
combining  with  iron  or  alumina,  which  is  undesirable  because  phos- 
phates of  iron  and  alumina  are  very  insoluble.  When  lime  is  present, 
the  phoshporic  acid  will  take  this  by  preference  and  the  reverted  phos- 
phate thus  formed  is  much  more  valuable  than  would  be  the  phosphates 
above  mentioned."     (W.  P.  Brooks.) 

Lime  hastens  the  decay  of  all  organic  substances  which  may  be  in  the 
soil.  Green  manures  and  barnyard  manures  are  of  little  use  the  first 
year  or  two  if  a  sufficient  amount  of  lime  does  not  exist  in  the  soil  to  pro- 
mote decomposition. 

Injurious  iron  compounds  in  the  soil  are  rendered  harmless  by  the  free 
use  of  lime. 

Lime  stimulates  to  activity  plant  food  in  peaty  soils,  drained  lands 
and  swampy  lands  which  have  been  under  water  for  a  long  time. 

The  physical  effect  of  lime  on  soil  is  also  very  marked. 

All  soils,  except  those  of  a  light,  sandy  nature  are  made  mellow  and 
friable  by  the  use  of  lime. 

Dense  clay  soils  are  especially  improved  by  being  treated  with  lime. 
Often  clay  soils  are  so  compact  that  they  are  impervious  to  both  air  and 
water.     Prof.  Brooks  has  the  following  to  say  regarding  clay  soils. 

"As  the  result  of  an  experiment,  it  is  reported  that  a  layer  of  water 
about  two  inches  thick  required  26  days  and  19  hours  to  pass  through  a 
clayey  soil.  After  the  soil  was  mixed  with  2.5  per  cent  of  lime,  the  same 
quantity  of  water  passed  through  it  in  17  hours.  The  explanation  of  this 
remarkable  effect  of  mixing  lime  with  clayey  soils  is  that  it  causes  the 
exceedingly  fine  particles  of  clay  to  gather  in  little  balls.  Between  these 
little  balls  of  clay,  air  and  water  circulate  as  between  grains  of  sand  and 
it  is  to  this  particular  effect  chiefly  that  the  great  improvement  in  the 
heavy  soils  resulting  from  liming  is  due. 

The  fact  that  certain  fertilizers,  among  which  kainit,  muriate  of 
potash  and  nitrate  of  soda  may  be  named,  when  freely  used  make  the 
soils  compact,  has  been  pointed  out.  The  use  of  these  fertilizers  also 
increases  the  tendency  to  formation  of  a  crust  at  the  surface.  If  such 
a  crust  be  broken  up  by  cultivation  or  hoeing,  it  forms  again  after  the 
next  rain.  It  is  practically  impossible  under  these  circumstances  to 
keep  the  soil  in  suitable  tilth.  The  use  of  lime  in  connection  with  such 
fertilizers  will  prove  an  effectual  preventive  of  crust  formation.  In 
European  agriculture,  air-slaked  lime  is  generally  employed  in  connec- 
tion with  nitrate  of  soda  or  potash  salts." 

Sandy  soils  become  more  compact  and  hold  humus  better,  thereby 
absorbing  and  retaining  moisture  longer  if  they  are  well  limed. 


Crops  Most  Benefited  by  Lime 

Alfalfa,  clover,  soy  beans,  cow  peas,  vetch,  all  root  crops  and  tubers, 
grasses,  garden  truck,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat,  corn,  wheat  and  sorg- 
hums require  lime  in  substantial  quantities. 

Wheeler  states  that  lupines,  millet,  red  top  and  blackberries  are 
injured  by  lime.  jj^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^ 

Make  a  small  ball  of  dirt  with  a  depression  on  one  side.  Pour  in  the 
depression  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid.  If  lime  is  present,  bubbles 
will  appear.  jj^^  ^^  ^^^^  j^_.  ^^.^ 

If  the  soil  is  acid,  it  indicates  that  lime  is  absent.  Place  a  strip  of  blue 
litmus  paper  in  some  moist  soil.  If  the  paper  turns  pink  or  red,  it  indi- 
cates that  the  soil  is  acid.  Pinkish  tint  would  indicate  only  slightly 
acid  and  bright  red  is  an  indication  that  the  soil  is  decidedly  acid. 

Neither  of  the  above  tests  are  very  reliable  if  the  soil  is  nearly  neutral. 
Excepting  a  chemical  analysis,  an  actual  demonstration  is  the  most 
reliable.  The  farmer  should  lime  a  strip  two,  three  or  four  rods  wide 
through  the  center  of  the  field  and  note  the  difference  between  the  limed 
and  unlimed  portion  in  the  crops. 

Land  on  which  sorrel  thrives  is  usually  sour. 

Amount  of  Lime  Land  Should  Contain 

Land  should  contain  from  0.4  to  0.5  per  cent  of  lime.  Soil  containing 
less  than  0.3  per  cent  is  apt  to  be  very  unproductive. 

How  Much  Lime  to  Apply 

The  amount  to  apply  depends  entirely  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil, 
both  chemically  and  physically,  and  the  kind  of  crops  to  be  grown.  The 
reserve  supply  below  the  average  depth  of  the  furrow  should  also  be 
taken  into  consideration.  Lime  may  be  exhausted  in  the  first  five  or 
six  inches,  but  an  abundance  may  exist  below.  When  that  condition  is 
found,  if  the  ground  is  plowed  a  little  deeper  and  manure  is  added,  it 
may  not  be  necessary  to  add  commercial  lime. 

It  is  better  toapply  a  smallamount  of  lime  often  than  a  large  quantity 
at  one  time.  For  instance,  it  is  better  to  apply  500  pounds  every  year 
for  four  years  than  to  apply  a  ton  at  one  time.  If  the  soil  is  sour,  heavy 
and  lifeless,  it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  from  one  to  two  tons  to  the 
acre.  If  it  is  only  slightly  acid,  500  pounds  may  be  sufficient  to  neutral 
ize  the  acidity  and  rectify  abnormal  physical  conditions. 

The  following  table  gives  the  amount  of  lime,  according  to  Snyder, 
removed  in  crops: 

20-bushel  crop  of  wheat 8  pounds 

65-bushel  crop  of  corn 12  pounds 

30-bushel  crop  of  peas 75  pounds 

15-bushel  crop  of  flax 16  pounds 

2  tons  of  clover  hay 75  pounds 

81 


Kind  of  Lime  to  Apply 

The  principal  sources  of  lime  are  raw  limestone  rock,  air-slaked  lime 
hydrated  lime,  land  plaster,  oyster  shells,  wood  ashes,  natural  phos- 
phates, gas  and  dye-house  lime,  basic  slag  and  marl. 

The  writer  favors  raw  limestone  rock,  finely  ground,  which  contains  a 
high  per  cent  of  calcium  oxide  (Ca  0). 

Burned  or  caustic  lime  is  best  for  heavy,  peaty  soils  which  contain  an 
excessive  amount  of  nitrogen.  ■ 

Hydrated  and  air-slaked  lime  are  favored  on  account  of  their  light 
weight,  especially  in  sections  where  freight  rates  are  excessive. 

Phosphate  rock  contains  lime  as  well  as  phosphoric  acid.  The  cost, 
however,  is  too  high  to  make  it  economical  to  use  for  liming  purposes. 

Wood  ashes  contain  from  35  to  50  per  cent  of  lime,  besides  consider- 
able magnesia  and  potash.  The  farmer  should  save  all  the  wood  ashes 
and  place  them  on  the  ground  as  a  top  dressing.  Ashes  are  especially 
fine  for  fruit  trees. 

Land  plaster  contains  lime,  and  is  manufactured  from  gypsum.  It  is 
not  as  beneficial  as  lime  rock  to  sweeten  soil.  When  land  plaster  is 
sprinkled  throughout  manure  piles  or  gutters  or  in  stalls,  it  prevents  the 
waste  of  ammonia.  When  so  mixed  and  applied  to  the  land,  the  effect 
is  fine. 

Marl  compares  favorably  with  air-slaked  lime.  It  is  especially  bene- 
ficial to  light,  sandy  soils  on  account  of  the  clay  it  contains. 

When  to  Apply  Lime 

The  chemical  and  physical  action  of  lime  being  slow,  it  should  be 
applied  several  weeks  before  the  crop  is  planted.  If  the  land  is  intended 
for  potatoes,  the  lime  should  be  applied  the  previous  year.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  apply  lime  after  the  ground  is  plowed  in  the  fall  and  immediately 
disc  or  harrow  in.  It  can  be  applied  safely  any  season  of  the  year  on 
clover  or  pasture.  If  the  pasture  or  meadow  is  disced  after  the  applica- 
tion is  made,  it  prevents  in  a  great  measure,  washing  away  by  rains. 

Commercial  fertilizers  and  yard  manures  should  not  be  mixed  with 
lime.  It  is  best  to  apply  the  manure  several  weeks  before  the  lime  is  put 
on  the  ground.  If  alfalfa,  peas  or  beans  are  to  be  planted,  no  serious 
harm  will  result  if  lime  is  applied  within  a  few  days  before  sowing. 

How  to  Apply  Lime 

Lime  in  any  form  should  be  distributed  with  a  machine  spreader  in 
order  to  insure  an  even  distribution. 

An  excessive  amount  in  one  place  is  harmful  and  none  in  another  place 
causes  an  uneven  stand.  Hence,  it  is  not  advisable  to  spread  with  a 
shovel. 

Several  types  of  lime  sowers  are  on  the  market  and  most  of  them  do 

82 


good  work  if  the  lime  is  ground  to  an  even  fineness  and  is  perfectly  dry. 
If  it  contains  large  pieces,  it  clogs,  and  if  damp,  it  cakes.  In  either  case, 
the  distribution  is  uneven.  After  experimentina  with  a  number  of  lime 
sowers  and  various  types  of  manure  spreaders,  the  writer  has  found  the 
Success  Spreader  to  be  an  ideal  machine  for  the  work.  This  machine 
has  three  factors,  two  of  which  are  special  attachments,  in  its  make-up 
which  are  absolutely  necessary  to  insure  perfect  distribution  and  at  the 
same  time  not  damage  the  machine. 

1st.  A  return  apron.  This  so  that  any  lime  that  falls  through  the 
bottom  will  fall  directly  upon  the  ground  and  not  be  carried  back  into 
the  spider  wheels,  as  would  be  true  were  an  endless  apron  machine  used. 

2d.  A  worm  and  gear  drive.  This  to  give  a  positive  movement  of 
the  bottom,  which  is  not  possible  with  a  ratchet  feed. 

3d.  A  cylinder  set  inside  the  box  above  the  apron  and  in  front  of  its 
rear  end.  In  machines  where  the  cylinder  is  back  of  the  box,  set  below 
the  apron  back  of  its  rear  end,  the  lime  falls  onto  the  ground  without 
passing  over  the  cylinder.     It  is  not  evenly  distributed . 

The  Success  Manure  Spreader  has  all  of  these  quahties,  and,  in  fact, 
is  the  only  machine  on  the  market  which  will  satisfactorily  spread  lime. 
For  the  distribution  of  lime,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  protect  the  mate- 
rial from  being  blown  by  the  wind,  and  to  reduce  the  feed  of  the  bottom- 
to  smaller  amounts  than  are  used  in  the  distribution  of  manure.  To 
accomplish  this  purpose  on  the  Success  Spreader,  a  hood  is  provided 
which  goes  entirely  over  the  cylinder  and  extends  down  near  enough  to 
the  ground  so  that  the  wind  cannot  blow  the  material.  There  is  also 
provided  a  slow-feed  worm  and  gear  which  are  used  in  place  of  the  regu- 
lar worm  and  gear  on  the  apron  feed  of  the  machine  and  reduces  the 
quantity  of  material  spread  to  the  acre  to  one-half  the  amount  indicated 
on  the  feed  gauge  at  the  various  speeds  of  the  machine.  In  other  words, 
in  a  seventy-bushel  spreader,  it  reduces  the  range  of  feed  to  1|  to  6  loads 
per  acre. 

In  distributing  lime  with  any  manure  spreader,  it  is  wise  to  fill  the 
bottom  of  the  box  with  a  little  loose  straw  and  throw  a  forkful  over  the 
end  of  the  cylinder.  This  is  to  prevent  the  material  rattUng  out  in 
going  to  the  field.  On  account  of  the  weight  of  the  material,  it  is  also 
wise  to  load  the  box  only  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  full.  You  then 
have  all  that  the  machine  should  handle. 

Common  Salt 

Salt  (Chloride  of  Sodium)  was  used  at  one  time  quite  extensively  as  a 
fertilizer,  but  during  recent  years  it  has  not  been  regarded  with  favor. 
Some  years  ago  the  writer  observed  the  effect  of  salt  on  a  piece  of  land 
which  for  some  reason  failed  to  produce  normal  crops.  The  effect  the 
first  year  was  splendid,  but  the  crop  grown  the  second  year  was  much 
inferior  to  that  grown  on  an  adjoining  plot  which  had  not  been  salted. 

83 


It  seemed  to  act  as  a  quick  stimulant,  but  its  effect  was  not  lasting. 
Prof.  Brooks  says: 

"1st.  It  helps  to  absorb  and  retain  moisture  and  may  be  useful  on 
light  soils. 

"2d.  According  to  Lloyd,  it  may  liberate  ammonia  from  inert  com- 
pounds. 

"3d.  According  to  Storer,  it  makes  lime  and  potash,  which  are  a  part 
of  the  compound  silicates  of  the  soil,  more  available.  The  potash  will 
doubtless  be  more  effectively  made  available  by  the  use  of  Ume. 

"4th.  In  large  quantities,  salt  hinders  decomposition  and  has  been 
used  with  apparent  benefit  in  soils  containing  very  large  amounts  of 
humus  on  which  the  growth  was  naturally  so  rank  that  grains  tended  to 
lodge. 

"5th.  If  used  in  very  large  quantities,  salt  may  injure  or  prevent 
plant  growtho     It  is  sometimes  so  used  on  walks  to  keep  down  weeds. 

"6th.  Salt  lessens  the  percentage  of  starch  in  potatoes,  of  sugar  in 
beets  or  in  fruits.  This  effect  is  due  to  the  chlorin  and  is  similar  to  that 
of  muriate  of  potash. 

"Salt  is  more  likely  to  prove  beneficial  on  the  lighter  soils,  and  among 
the  crops  benefited  by  it  most  are  asparagus,  mangolds,  cabbages  and 
grains.  It  can  seldom  prove  beneficial  to  use  salt  in  quantities  exceed- 
ing 200  or  300  pounds  to  the  acre.  It  should  be  spread  broadcast  and 
worked  in  with  a  harrow." 

Peat,  Muck  and  Leaf  Mould 

Peat,  muck  and  leaf  mould  are  valuable  substances  to  apply  to  cer- 
tain types  of  soil.  They  are  composed  largely  of  humus  having  been 
formed  from  vegetable  matter.  They  contain  from  one-half  to  four  per 
cent  of  nitrogen  and  a  small  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
The  two  latter  elements  exist  in  greater  quantities  in  leaf  mould  than  in 
peat  or  muck.  Nitrogen  is  found  in  greater  quantities  in  peat  than  in 
muck  and  mould. 

If  any  of  these  substances  are  easily  accessible  and  the  haul  is  short, 
it  pays  to  put  it  on  land  deficient  in  nitrogen  and  humus.  They 
improve  clay  soils  both  chemically  and  physically. 

Chemically,  they  are  improved  by  adding  humus,  nitrogen  and  some 
carbonic  acid.  The  acids  act  upon  some  of  the  inorganic  elements,  ren- 
dering them  soluble. 

Physically,  clay  soils  are  benefited  as  follows: 

1st.  They  are  made  porous,  mellow  and  friable,  a  condition  which 
facilitates  the  absorption  of  water. 

2d.     Capillary  attraction  is  stimulated. 

3d.     Atmospheric  oxygen  is  admitted. 

4th.   Increases  the  warmth  in  the  early  spring. 

5th.  Soil  is  easier  to  cultivate  and  less  liable  to  puddle  and  crack. 


Sandy  soils  are  improved  by  the  addition  of  humus  and  nitrogen. 
The  humus  or  organic  material  is  of  great  value  in  holding  moisture  and 
giving  the  soil  permeability. 

The  value  of  all  these  substances  is  greatly  enhanced  when  made  in  a 
compost  with  unburned  lime,  phosphate  rock,  gypsum,  kainit  or  wood 
ashes. 

In  some  countries,  farmers  not  only  maintain,  but  increase,  the  fer- 
tility of  their  soil  and  produce  remarkable  yields  by  using  muck,  peat, 
leaf  mould  and  sediments  from  ponds  and  streams  made  in  a  compost. 
Fish  and  meat  scraps  also  improve  the  mixture. 

Poultry  Manure 

Too  often  the  farmer  does  not  sufficiently  appreciate  the  value  of 
poultry  manure  to  give  it  the  proper  care  and  utilize  it  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. 

Poultry  manure  is  richer  in  plant  food  elements  than  any  of  the  other 
farm  manures.     It  is  especially  rich  in  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid. 

On  account  of  rapid  fermentation,  unless  properly  cared  for,  much  of 
the  nitrogen  is  lost  by  evaporation. 

The  droppings  should  be  gathered  from  the  floor  of  the  poultry  house 
every  few  days  and  stored  in  a  dry  place.  If  stored  damp  and  allowed 
to  remain  so,  much  is  lost  by  fermentation. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  sprinkle  dry  muck,  peat,  dirt  or  mould  on  the  floor 
of  the  house.  By  so  doing,  the  liquid  is  absorbed  and  the  drying  process 
is  hastened.  Gypsum,  kainit  or  ground  phosphate  rock  are  splendid 
absorbents,  besides  they  add  to  the  richness  of  the  compost. 

Caution 

Ashes  should  not  be  mixed  with  poultry  manure  for  the  reason  that 
they  contain  alkalies  which  increase  fermentation,  causing  a  loss  of 
nitrogen. 

Before  using,  poultry  manure  should  be  mixed  with  dry  earth  and 
spread  thin  and  evenly. 

If  placed  in  the  hill,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much.     An 

excessive  amount  will  burn  the  plant,  but  a  verj^  small  amount  will 

cause  a  remarkable  growth.     The  writer  knows  of  nothing  in  fertilizers 

as  valuable  as  poultry  manure  to  use  in  the  truck  garden,  flower  garden 

and  in  young  orchards. 

Conclusion 

In  concluding  our  appeal  to  farmers,  we  earnestly  urge  those  who  are 
at  all  skeptical  or  in  doubt  regarding  the  value  of  barnyard  and  other 
manures  mentioned  in  this  book,  to  make  a  thorough  test  of  their  worth. 

From  the  earliest  civilization  down  through  all  the  ages,  manures 
have  been  the  source  of  successful  agriculture  and  the  chief  staff  in 
maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

85 


Cato,  the  renowned  agriculturist  of  Roman  times,  said:  "To  maintain 
the  fertihty  of  the  soil,  plow  deep,  plow  again  and  mix  with  the  soil  well- 
rotted  manure." 

Tull,  several  centuries  later,  said:  "The  fertility  of  our  soil  will  not 
wane  if  we  plow  deep,  rotate  crops  and  mix  with  the  soil  animal  dung." 

The  history  of  "Farmers  of  Forty  Centuries"  presents  a  vivid 
description  of  what  is  being  accomplished  by  a  people  who  know  the  art, 
but  not  the  science,  of  farming. 

King  tells  us  that  five  hundred  million  people,  more  than  five  times 
our  entire  population,  are  being  maintained  from  the  cultivated  fields  of 
Japan,  Korea  and  China,  an  area  much  smaller  than  the  tilled  lands  of 
our  own  country.  Manure,  he  states,  is  as  precious  to  those  people  as 
their  harvest.  Their  ways  of  farming  are  not  based  upon  scientific 
knowledge,  but  they  do  things  as  their  forefathers  did.  They  do  not 
know  the  plant  food  elements  contained  in  manure,  but  they  do  know 
that  when  evenly  spread  and  worked  into  a  deep,  well-made  seed-bed, 
an  abundant  crop  is  assured.  They  cannot  tell  why  leaf-moulds,  peat, 
muck  and  sediments  from  rivers  and  ponds  enrich  the  soil,  but  they  do 
know  that  when  these  substances  are  not  used,  the  soil  produces 
grudgingly.  Without  being  able  to  give  a  scientific  reason,  they  have 
plowed  deep,  packed  and  pulverized,  utilized  organic  matters  of  all 
kinds  and  irrigated,  producing  year  after  year  from  five  to  seven  times 
more  than  our  farmers. 

We,  with  our  fertile  soil,  have  heard  the  alarm  of  depletion  which  is 
being  sounded  through  our  land.  Do  you  not  think  it  time  for  us  to 
imitate  the  methods  of  those  farmers  who  are  producing  enough  on  a  plot 
of  ground  no  larger  than  the  area  contained  within  a  boundary  line 
extending  from  Chicago  south  to  the  gulf;  thence  westward  to  and 
along  the  western  line  of  Kansas,  and  back  to  the  place  of  beginning,  to 
feed  five  hundred  million  of  people?  Do  you  not  feel  that  all  farmers 
should  adapt  methods  which  many  of  our  advanced  agriculturists 
have  demonstrated  will  bring  rich  results? 

Why  should  we  be  alarmed?  Why  should  we  fear  want?  Why 
should  we  not  produce  enough  to  keep  pace  with  the  increase  in  our 
population  and  for  centuries  have  a  surplus? 

We  know  the  art  and  we  possess  knowledge  which  makes  plain  the 
reasons  why  scientific  methods  are  successful.  We  should  not  wait 
until  grim  necessity  compels  us  to  adopt  nature's  ways,  nor  neglect  to 
conserve  fertility  which  was  manifestly  intended  to  perpetuate  the  pro- 
ducing ability  of  our  soil. 

Farmers!  To  rob  the  soil  of  its  fertility  by  growing  crops  and  not 
observe  stock-raising  as  a  feature  of  equal  importance,  is  larceny  upon 
posterity.  Not  to  protect  from  waste,  manures,  organic  matters  and 
other  substances  containing  plant  food  elements,  is  certainly  a  crime. 

86 


CORN 

CORN  is  the  American  farmer's  most  valuable  crop.  According  to 
the  government  estimate  issued  Nov.  8,  1912,  the  corn  crop  of  the 
United  States  amounts  to  3,169,170,000  bushels,  having  a  market 
value  of  approximately  $1,584,580,000.00.  Practically  the  entire 
amount  was  produced  in  twenty-eight  states.  Iowa  stands  first; 
the  crop  amounting  to  432,025,000  bushels,  an  average  of  forty- 
three  bushels  per  acre  as  compared  with  thirty-one  bushels  in  1911, 
and  Illinois  comes  second  with  428,450,000  bushels,  the  average  per 
acre  being  40.2  bushels,  an  increase  of  7.2  bushels  per  acre  over  the 
previous  year.  The  enormous  crop  is  attributed  to  a  fairly  favorable 
season  and  better  farming  methods.  The  results  show  very  plainly 
that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  not  waning,  and  that  all  it  needs  in 
order  to  produce  abundantly  is  the  right  treatment. 

Farmers  do  you  know  where  the  fertility  came  from  that  made  such 
a  wilderness  of  corn?  It  is  thought  by  some  that  all  of  it  comes  from 
the  soil,  when  in  reality,  only  a  very  small  per  cent  of  soil  plant  food 
proper  is  used  in  making  the  crop.  Ninety-seven  and  one-half  (97.5) 
per  cent  of  the  dry  substances  of  the  crop  is  composed  of  carbon, 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  hydrogen.  The  balance,  being  only  two  and 
one-half  (2.5)  per  cent,  is  ash  salts  which  includes  potash,  phosphorus 
and  sulphur,  were  taken  directly  from  the  soil.  About  sixty-one  (61) 
pounds  of  every  hundred  pounds  of  dry  corn  is  carbon  alone.  Carbon 
comes  from  the  atmosphere;  it  enters  the  plant  through  the  leaf,  in 
the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  secured  from  air  and  water,  and  nitrogen, 
indirectly,  comes  from  the  air.  Water  is  also  an  important  feature  in 
making  a  crop  of  corn.  From  seventy-five  to  eighty  per  cent  of  the 
green  plant  is  composed  of  water  and  in  the  process  of  growth  three 
hundred  pounds  are  used  to  mature  each  pound  of  dry  material. 

To  utilize  these  valuable  elements  which  exist  in  inexhaustible  quan- 
tities, requires  knowledge  and  scientific  management.  The  require- 
ments of  other  farm  crops  are  not  materially  different  from  corn;  for 
instance,  one  hundred  pounds  of  wheat  grain  contain  forty-six  and 
one  tenth  (46.1)  pounds  of  carbon,  five  and  eight  tenths  (5.8)  pounds 
of  hydrogen,  forty-three  and  four  tenths  (43.4)  pounds  of  oxygen,  two 
and  three  tenths  (2.3)  pounds  of  nitrogen  and  two  and  four  tenths 
(2.4)  pounds  of  ash  elements.  The  ash  includes  all  the  phosphorus, 
potash,  silica,  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  sulphur  and  soda  used  in  making 
plant  food  compounds.  One  hundred  pounds  of  wheat  straw  contains 
ninety-three  pounds  of  carbon,  nitrogen,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and 
the  roots  and  stubble  contain  some  of  the  same  elements.  The  one 
hundred  pounds  of  grain  and  one  hundred  pounds  of  straw  combined 
rob  the  soil  of  but  one  and  one  tenth  (1.1)  pounds  of  phosphorus. 

87 


88 


While  the  per  cent  of  ash  salts  requh-ed  is  very  small,  we  do  not  wish 
to  be  understood  as  intimating  that  they  are  any  less  necessary  to  make 
a  crop  than  the  other  elements  mentioned. 

To  successfully  raise  corn,  plant  food  elements  must  co-operate 
with  each  other  and  the  farmer  must  co-operate  with  the  elements. 
Potash,  phosphorus,  etc.,  are  worthless  without  water  and  air,  and 
nitrogen  needs  humus.  The  plant  must  have  a  good  home  and  the 
right  care  if  it  thrives. 

The  soil  is  a  great  complex  factory  and  the  farmer  is  manager.  He 
should  know  his  factory,  know  what  each  crop  requires  and  just  how 
to  furnish  it,  if  he  is  to  turn  out  a  first-class  product  at  a  profit. 

How  to  store  and  make  available  soil  water,  how  to  admit  oxygen, 
how  to  select  and  preserve  seed,  how  to  make  a  suitable  home  for  the 
plant,  how  to  care  for  the  plant,  how  to  get  a  supply  of  nitrogen  free 
of  cost,  how  to  make  available  plant  food  elements  which  exist  in  the 
soil,  and  how  to  restore  elements  which  have  been  used,  are  all 
features  of  equal  importance  and  should  be  thoroughly  understood  by 
the  farmer. 

The  market  price  of  corn  does  not  represent  its  real  value  to  the 
farmer.  If  the  corn  is  fed  to  live-stock  and  the  manure  from  the  stock 
is  placed  on  the  land,  the  farmer  receives  the  full  feeding  value  of  his 
corn,  which  is  greater  than  the  market  value,  and  in  addition  returns 
to  the  soil  eighty  per  cent  of  the  fertihty  removed  by  the  plant. 

If  the  farmer  burns  his  corn  stalks,  he  loses  all  of  the  nitrogen  and 
organic  matter  contained  in  them.  On  the  contrary,  if  he  works  them 
into  the  seed  bed,  all  of  the  plant  food  is  returned  and  in  addition  the 
fiber,  which  is  equally  as  important  and  valuable  as  the  elements. 

While  the  present  acreage  and  the  average  production  per  acre 
appears  to  be  sufficient  to  meet  our  present  requirements,  the  natural 
increase  in  population  will  necessarily  demand  more  corn  each  year. 
The  high  price  of  beef  and  pork  should  stimulate  the  farmer  to  feed 
more  stock  and  ship  less  corn.  At  the  present  time  the  United  States 
is  exporting  corn  to  a  foreign  country,  knowing  that  every  bushel  that 
is  shipped  across  the  sea,  carries  with  it  fertility  from  our  farms.  The 
farmer  simply  receives,  when  he  sells  his  corn,  the  market  price;  but 
if  he  will  feed  it  to  hogs  and  cattle,  he  will,  if  he  feeds  scientifically,  dou- 
ble the  value  of  his  corn  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  fertility  where 
it  can  be  used  again. 

In  a  previous  article  on  tillage,  the  question  of  how  to  store  and  utilize 
water  is  fully  discussed.  Under  "Rotation,"  "How  to  Secure  Nitrogen 
from  the  Air,  and  Its  Value,"  is  gone  into  quite  extensively;  hence,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  consider  those  subjects  again.  Seed,  cultivation  and 
fertility,  three  of  the  important  features  not  heretofore  referred  to, 
deserve  special  consideration. 


Fertility 

Fertility  comprises  all  of  the  elements,  compounds  and  substances 
which  are  utilized  to  make  the  plant.  Carbon  and  nitrogen  are  a  part 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  they  abound  in  great  abundance.  Oxygen  and 
hydrogen  are  in  the  air,  water  and  soil.  Potash,  phosphorus,  sulphur, 
iron,  hme,  magnesia,  silicon,  aluminum  and  soda  are  in  the  soil.  Water 
is  a  compound  composed  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  and  is  utilized  by  the 
plant  through  its  roots.  Humus,  another  compound,  is  a  part  of  the 
soil. 

The  availability  and  usefulness  of  all  of  the  component  parts  of  fer- 
tility depend  upon  the  judgment  and  activity  of  the  farmer.  The  sup- 
ply may  be  abundant,  but  if  the  operations  pertaining  to  production  are 
mismanaged,  the  crop  will  be  disappointing. 

Carbon  - 

is  absorbed  and  converted  into  plant  substances  just  in  proportion  to 
the  size  and  health  of  the  plant  above  ground.  Good  seed  in  a  mellow 
soil,  well  watered  and  aerated,  causes  a  strong,  rapid  growth,  insuring 
an  abundance  of  carbon. 

Nitrogen 

Three-fourths  of  the  atmosphere  is  nitrogen.  The  medium  through 
which  it  can  be  secured  and  placed  in  the  soil  is  the  legume.  A  crop  of 
one  hundred  bushels  including  the  stalks  requires  about  148  pounds  of 
nitrogen.  Commercial  nitrogen  is  worth  twenty  cents  per  pound.  The 
value  of  nitTOgen  alone  in  the  crop  of  one  hundred  bushels  is,  therefore, 
$29.60.  This  can  be  furnished  free  of  cost  if  legumes  are  grown  on  the 
ground  the  previous  year.  By  referring  to  the  chapter  on  "Rotation," 
it  will  be  seen  that  legumes  not  only  furnish  nitrogen,  but  make  avail- 
able other  elements  and  improve  the  soil  in  many  ways. 

Water 

is  necessary,  not  in  minute,  but  very  substantial  quantities.  It  requires 
from  five  hundred  to  seven  hundred  tons  to  make  an  average  acre  of 
corn.  In  order  that  plants  may  use  water  according  to  nature's  ways, 
it  must  be  stored  in  the  ground.  This  is  done  by  plowing  deep,  using 
the  subsoil  plow  and  other  tillage  implements,  as  is  fully  explained  in 
the  chapter  on  "Dry-Land  Farming." 

Air 

is  supplied  by  tiling  and  by  tillage. 

Potash 

IS  found  in  disintegrated  particles  of  rock  which  form  the  body  of  soil. 
Most  soil  contains  enough  to  last  until  the  end  of  time.     In  clay  soils,  it 

91 


is  very  abundant.  Peaty  soils  are  apt  to  be  deficient.  It  can  be  sup- 
plied by  adding  barnyard  manures,  wood  ashes  or  kainit.  Quite  often 
it  will  be  found  that  the  soil  is  rich  in  potash,  but  that  it  is  dormant  or 
unavailable.  The  condition  can  be  remedied  by  sowing  a  few  hundred 
pounds  of  lime  on  each  acre.  Weak,  slender,  long-jointed  stalks  indi- 
cate a  lack  of  potash. 

Phosphorus 

like  potash,  is  found  in  disintegrated  particles  of  rock.  Phosphorus  is 
of  no  value  as  a  plant  food  until  it  is  made  soluble;  or,  in  other  words, 
transformed  into  phosphoric  acid.  This  is  accomplished  by  applying 
barnyard  manure  to  the  land.  When  fermentation  takes  place,  car- 
bonic acid  is  formed,  which,  in  conjunction  with  the  other  acids,  act 
upon  the  phosphorus,  rendering  a  small  per  cent  soluble.  Where 
manure  cannot  be  obtained,  green  crops  should  be  plowed  under. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  furnish  phosphorus  in  the  form  of  acid 
phosphate  or  superphosphate.  In  this  form  most  of  it  is  available.  It 
should  be  applied  at  planting  time  in  quantities  ranging  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  per  acre. 

Lime 

While  lime  is  not  a  plant  food,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  in  the 
soil.  It  not  only  neutralizes  acids,  but  it  makes  available  other  ele- 
ments and  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  Most  corn 
lands,  especially  those  in  the  Mississippi  river  territory,  need  lime. 

All  of  the  other  inorganic  elements  mentioned  as  component  parts  of 
fertility  exist  in  the  soils  of  the  United  States  in  abundance. 

Humus 

is  an  organic  substance  which  cannot  be  dispensed  with.  It  contains 
nitrogen;  in  fact,  where  it  does  not  exist,  there  is  little  or  no  nitrogen. 
It  is  necessary  to  maintain  soil  bacteria;  it  influences  the  temperature  of 
the  soil,  assists  in  absorbing  water,  and  improves  the  tilth  of  the  soil. 

Manure 

Barnyard  manure  is  the  ideal  fertilizer  for  corn.  It  is  a  waste  of 
money  and  energy  to  attempt  to  raise  corn  without  it,  if  the  farmer 
wishes  to  produce  and  at  the  same  time  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
It  contains  all  of  the  plant  food  elements,  and  the  organic  portion  is 
finally  converted  into  humus.  It  is  the  sheet-anchor  to  the  corn- 
grower,  and  will  be  until  the  entire  economy  of  plant  growth  is  changed. 

Is  Fertility  Waning 

The  writer  is  not  entirely  in  sympathy  with  those  who  know  that  the 
fertility  of  our  land  is  fast  disappearing  and  that  each  year  the  soil  will 

92 


produce  less  and  less.  We  feel  that  depletion  is  very,  very  remote;  we 
are  confident  that  our  soils  are  very  rich,  and  that  they  will  continue  for 
ages  to  produce  just  in  proportion  as  they  are  tilled  and  managed. 

Farmers  know  the  art  of  farming,  and  they  are  fast  learning  the  chem- 
istry of  the  soil  and  the  science  of  plant  life  and  growth.  They  know  the 
profits  to  be  made  by  properly  feeding  their  stock,  and  the  value  of 
manure  when  applied  to  land  as  well  as  other  allied  features  of  modern 
farming.  While  teachers,  demonstrations  and  bulletins  have  done  a 
great  deal  to  assist  farmers  in  knowing  modern  methods,  the  splendid 
price  for  farm  products  has  also  been,  during  the  past  few  years,  very 
stimulating. 

As  evidence  that  the  soils  of  the  corn  belt  are  not  losing  their  fertility 
but  on  the  contrary  are  very  rich  and  productive,  we  need  only  to  exam- 
ine the  government  report  for  1912.  This  report  shows  an  increase  in 
Illinois  over  the  previous  year  of  seven  and  two-tenths  (7.2)  bushels  per 
acre.  Iowa  made  an  increase  of  twelve  bushels,  Ohio  four  and  two- 
tenths  bushels  and  Missouri  six  bushels.  The  increase  in  corn  in  the 
United  States  is  five  and  four-tenths  bushels  per  acre.  These  increases 
indicate  very  conclusively  that  our  soil  will  produce  if  properly  tilled 
and  managed. 

Seed 

As  previously  intimated,  there  are  four  essential  steps  to  be  observed 
in  raising  corn,  namely;  the  seed  bed,  fertility,  seed  and  cultivation. 

Seed  is  no  less  nor  is  it  more  important  than  the  other  three  features. 
To  fulfill  one  requirement  and  neglect  the  other  would  be  as  inconsist- 
ent as  attempting  to  teach  long  division  and  not  know  how  to  multiply 
or  add. 

The  inherent  power  of  corn  to  transmit  its  own  kind,  is  more  marked 
than  in  any  other  plant.  Strong  healthy,  pure-bred  seed  produces  its 
own  kind  and  weak  emaciated  seed  of  poor  heredity  is  always  reflected 
in  the  harvest.  Inbred  corn  produces  deficient  and  deformed  ears. 
Com  fertilized  by  pollen  from  barren  stalks  and  sucker  stalks  is  not  apt 
to  yield  good  corn  if  at  all.  The  tendency  is  for  such  corn  to  produce 
like  stalks.  The  hereditary  tendency  is  so  sensitive  that  the  location 
of  the  ear  on  the  stalk  is  transmitted,  a  point  to  be  considered  in  sec- 
tions where  the  growing  season  is  short. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  corn  planted  from  ears  located  near 
the  ground  will  mature  from  ten  to  fifteen  days  earlier  than  those 
located  very  high.  Seed  should  be  of  a  variety  and  strain  adapted  to 
the  locality  where  it  is  to  be  planted.  Southern  corn  will  not  mature 
in  a  northern  latitude,  neither  will  corn  grown  in  a  humid  climate  do 
well  in  a  semi-arid  section.  Corn  can,  however,  become  acclimated 
in  two  or  three  years  if  care  is  used. 

93 


The  seed  grain  should  possess  a  strong  vitahty,  for  the  reason  that 
the  first  stem  and  the  holding  roots  secure  their  nourishment  from  the 
seed  itself  and  not  from  the  soil  until  the  leaf  is  far  enough  above 
ground  to  breathe  in  carbon-dioxide. 

If  the  seed  is  shriveled  or  has  a  weak  vitality  from  any  cause,  the 
initial  growth  will  be  weak  and  the  leaf  will  be  pale  and  anaemic,  but 
if  on  the  contrary  the  seed  is  strong,  plump  and  healthy,  it  will  germinate 
quickly  and  before  its  vitality  is  exhausted  the  leaf  will  be  breathing  in 
that  element  which  composes  the  major  portion  of  the  plant. 

Selecting  Seed 

Corn  for  seed  should  be  selected,  (preferably  from  a  breeding  plot) 
in  the  field  after  it  is  thoroughly  ripened  and  before  the  corn  is  cut.  It 
is  advisable  to  collect  the  earliest  maturing  ears  which  are  at  a  uniform 
distance  from  the  ground.     As  soon  as  it  is  gathered  it  should  be 


A  Good  Type  of  Seed  Corn 

placed  in  a  seed  house  which  is  artificially  heated,  if  possible,  and  thor- 
oughly ventilated.  The  corn,  grain  and  cob,  when  gathered,  contains 
a  large  per  cent  of  moisture,  and  unless  evaporation  is  rapid  and  the 
corn  kept  so  that  there  will  be  no  re-absorption  of  moisture,  the  germ 
is  apt  to  mould. 

Storing  Seed 

The  results  from  planting  seed  rightly  cared  for  and  that  which  was 
not  properly  taken  care  of,  are  fairly  illustrated  in  an  experiment  made 

94 


by  the  writer.  Each  year  for  three  years  two  bushels  were  selected  and 
stored  in  a  crib.  The  ears  were  bound  together  in  a  braid  and  hung  up. 
Another  two  bushels  was  selected  from  the  same  field  and  placed  in  a 
dry,  warm,  well-ventilated  room.  The  corn  was  planted  on  adjoining 
plots  and  received  the  same  cultivation.  The  average  yield  for  the 
three  years  was  eighteen  bushels  and  two  pounds  per  acre  more  an- 
nually in  favor  of  the  seed  kept  in  the  seed  house.  Practically  all  of 
the  seed  germinated,  but  as  it  came  through  the  ground  the  difference 
between  the  two  plots  was  very  apparent.  In  the  one  the  seed  came  up 
rapidly,  throwing  out  a  strong  dark-green  stem.  The  other  was  more 
retarded  in  its  growth  and  many  of  the  leaves  were  yellow  and  the 
stems  slender  and  weak. 

Wisconsin  Experiments 

Wisconsin  farmers  under  the  direction  of  the  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, have  carried  on  some  experiments  which  demonstrate  the  value  of 
properly  preserved  seed.  These  experiments  are  so  convincing  that  I 
feel  they  should  have  the  widest  possible  publicity. 

Samples  of  farmers'  seed  corn  as  planted  by  them  were  secured  from 
tv/enty-five  farmers  surrounding  each  demonstration  farm.  Each  ear 
of  this  was  tested  for  germination  and  a  record  kept  at  the  Madison 
station.  One  hundred  and  fifty  kernels  of  each  farmer's  corn  was 
planted  in  duplicate  rows  in  different  parts  of  one  of  the  demonstration 
fields.  The  exact  stand  was  determined  from  the  number  of  stalks 
appearing  from  the  160  kernels  planted,  and  later,  the  yield  of  each 
man's  corn  was  secured.  Samples  of  station-bred,  kiln-dried  corn  were 
planted  beside  the  farmer's  corn  and  were  taken  as  standards  for  com- 
parison." 


Variety- 

Storage 

Germina- 
tion, 
Per  Cent 

Stand 

Yield  Per 

Acre, 
Bushels 

Silver  King    ^ 

Fire-Dried _    _    _    . 

95.0 
99. 

97. 
99. 
40. 
42. 
42. 
77. 

90.0 

95.0 

91. 

93. 

60. 

32. 

87. 

77. 

85  7 

Silver  King 

Garret  _  _    .  _   . 

77  5 

Golden  Glow 

Old  Factory 

71   1 

Golden  Glow_ 

Silver  King 

Yellow  Dent  _ 

Garret 

On  outside  of  pump  house 
House  (crib) .    . .    . 

72.8 
41.7 
33  3 

Flint   

Flint 

House  (crib) 

Porch        ^    _  _ 

27.6 
50  6 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  Silver  King  seed  field  cured  and  stored  on 
the  outside  of  a  pump  house  produced  a  stand  of  60  per  cent  and  a  yield 
of  41.7  bushels  per  acre,  while  the  same  variety  of  seed  at  the  same  sta- 
tion on  the  same  kind  of  soil  and  properly  cured  produced  a  stand  of  90 
per  cent  and  a  yield  of  85.7  bushels  per  acre  or  44  bushels  more,  worth 
$22.00  per  acre. 

In  other  words.  Farmer  A  secured  one-half  a  crop  because  of  poor 
seed,  and  Farmer  B  a  full  crop  because  of  good  seed. 


96 


One  bushel  of  corn  will,  the  report  states,  plant  six  acres;  hence,  for 
every  bushel  of  corn  that  the  first  farmer  planted,  he  lost  on  the  six 
acres  $132.00,  or  on  30  acres,  $660.00. 

The  following  table  gives  data  regarding  storage,  germination  and 
stand  of  350  farmers'  corn  scattered  widely  over  the  state.  It,  there- 
fore, represents  fairly  the  condition  of  corn  in  the  state  during  1909-10. 


Method  of  Storage 


1.  Kiln  Dried 

2.  Furnace  Room  _ , 

;].     Room  above  Kitchen. 


8. 

9. 

10. 


Average  of  above -    — 

Attics 

Under  Porches - 

Granaries 

Barns,  Tool-houses  and  other  Out- 
buildings   -  - 

Corn  Cribs  _  _    

In  Shocks  during  Winter 

Wind-mills  and  Outside  of  Walls  of 
Buildings 


Average 


Germination 


Per   I    Per       Per 
Cent     Cent     Cent 


93. 
93. 
92. 

92. 
92. 
79. 
65. 


38. 
81. 

45. 


90. 
89. 
81. 


91.5 
91.0 
86.5 


76.4 


86.6  89.6 

77.  84.5 

62.  I70.5 

43  .  54 . 0 

52.  69.0 

37.  137.5 

1.5  '  41.2 

23.  i34.0 

55.5  65.9 


Number 
of 

Tests 

16. 

8. 

112. 


136. 

75. 
27. 
20. 

52. 
26. 

4. 

10. 
350. 


Average 

Stand, 

1909-1910 


89. 
8l'. 


79. 
63. 

77 

60. 
49. 
41. 

56. 


59.5 


Barren  Stalks 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that,  if  pollen  from  barren  stalks  fertilize 
the  silk  of  an  ear  on  an  adjoining  stalk  and  that  ear  is  used  for  seed,  bar- 
ren stalks  will,  in  a  measure,  result.  It  has  also  been  demonstrated  that 
if  barren  and  stunted  stalks  are  removed  from  a  breeding  plot  before  the 
pollen  falls,  the  percentage  of  barren  stalks  is  greatly  reduced.  The 
Wisconsin  report  states: 

"The  selection  of  seed  corn  from  the  strains  producing  few  barren 
stalks  and  the  removal  of  the  barren  stalks  present  before  they  produce 
pollen,  therefore,  offer  a  means  of  very  materially  reducing  the  per- 
centage of  barren  stalks  present.  The  following  table  is  very  convincing, 
but  it  does  not  represent  the  percentage  of  barren  stalks  in  the  average 
corn  field: 


Row 

Barren  Stalks. 
Per  Cent 

Seed  Corn,    Seed  Corn, 
Per  Cent         Bushels 

Feed  Corn, 
Bushels 

Total 
Bushels 

4 
6 
11 
13 
15 
21 

3.3 
5.0 
2.3 
3.0 
1.0 
.6 

30  0               12. 
23  7                 7.6 
59.4               43.9 
53 . 4               23  . 5 
57.4               42.1 
58.2               46.0 

28.0 
24.4 
30.0 
20.5 
31.7 
33.0 

40.0 
32.0 
73.9 
44.0 
73.8 
79.0 

Average  per  acre,  three  best 
strains  _ 

58.3               44.0 

75.6 

Average  per  acre,  all  strains  _  _ 

47.0        ,        27.4 

57.3 

Improvement  in  vield     

11.3 

16.6 

Bushels 

Per  Acre. 

18.3 

Bushels 
Per  Acre. 

(Difference  between  best  and  poorest  strains  is  47  bushels  per  acre.) 


The  results  of  the  Wisconsin  experiments  are  no  more  startling  than 
those  made  by  thousands  of  thorough  farmers  and  practically  every 
demonstration  station  in  the  United  States  where  corn-raising  is  a 
feature.  The  lessons  are  so  convincing  that  farmers  cannot  afford  to 
disregard  them. 

Seed  House 

It  is  very  evident  that  a  warm,  well-ventilated  garret  or  a  furnace 
room  is  an  excellent  place  to  store  seed  corn.  It  has  also  been  demon- 
strated that  a  corn  crib,  stock  barn,  granary,  pump  house  or  any  build- 
ing where  the  ventilation  is  irregular  and  atmospheric  changes  are  not 
under  control  is  a  very  undesirable  place  to  store  seed  corn.  The  seed 
ear  should  be  picked  when  ripe  and  placed  where  the  evaporation  is 
rapid  enough  to  prevent  deterioration  of  the  germ. 

If  corn  is  subjected  to  atmospheric  changes,  it  will  absorb  moisture 
one  day  and  probably  freeze  the  next,  weakening  its  vitality,  if  not 
entirely  destroying  the  germ. 

We  fully  realize  that  all  farmers  cannot  have  an  ideal  seed  house, 
but  they  can  utilize  a  garret  or  vacant  room  which  may  be  kept  warm 
and  well  ventilated  for  a  time  sufficient  to  take  the  moisture  from  the 
grain  and  cob.  It  is  shown  that  barns,  especially  where  stock  is 
confined,  is  a  poor  place  to  store  or  cure  seed  corn,  due  to  exhalations 
from  the  animals. 

Testing  Seed 

In  order  to  prevent  as  far  as  possible,  the  danger  of  having  a  poor 
stand,  every  ear  should  be  tested. 

The  grain  of  corn  planted  should  produce  at  least  one  ear.  An 
average  ear  of  seed  corn  contains  about  750  kernels  which  ought  to 
produce  as  many  ears.  Five  ears  should  produce  at  least  forty-five 
bushels  of  corn.     If  any  per  cent  of  the  seed  corn  planted  fails  to  ger- 


minate,  the  loss  is  material,  but  when  fifty  per  cent  or  more  fails  to 
germinate,  the  loss  is  great. 

While  there  may  be  exceptions  to  the  rule,  it  will  be  found  that  in 
most  instances  if  two  or  more  kernels  in  an  ear  are  dead,  the  whole  ear 
is  dead.  If  a  farmer  plants  his  corn  and  does  not  discover  that  the  seed 
is  defective  for  a  week  or  ten  days  after,  he  does  not  have  time  to  make 
tests,  but  must  immediately  plant  again  with  probably  the  same  re- 
sults. These  delays  necessarily  postpone  a  growth  which  should  take 
place  early  in  the  season. 

To  test  enough  corn  to  plant  forty  acres  will  require  about  four  or 
five  hours  work,  a  matter  of  time  hardly  worth  considering. 


Rack  for  Brown's  Seed  Corn  Tester 


Brown's  Seed  Corn  Tester 


98 


How  to  Test 

A  modern  method.  Brown's  Seed  Tester  consists  of  a  holding 
rack,  Figure  1,  and  seed  trays,  Figure  2.  The  rack  holds  twenty-four 
ears,  twelve  on  each  side.  The  ears  on  the  front  side  are  numbered 
from  one  down  to  twelve.  On  the  back  side  they  are  numbered  from 
13  down  to  24.  Each  tray,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  has  twenty-four 
holes,  twelve  on  each  side.  The  holes  are  numbered  from  left  to  right 
running  from  1  to  12,  on  the  front  side,  and  from  13  to  24  on  the  back 
side.  The  holes  should  be  filled  with  sand.  If  sand  cannot  be  easily 
secured  use  absorbent  cotton.  Commence  filling  by  removing  three 
or  four  kernels  from  ear  No.  1  at  the  top  of  the  rack,  taking  the  kernels 
from  different  parts  of  the  ear,  and  place  them  in  hole  No.  1  on  the 
first  tray  and  so  on  until  kernels  have  been  removed  and  planted 
from  twenty-four  ears.  After  all  trays  are  filled,  they  should  be  locked. 
It  is  now  ready  to  receive  warm  water  (not  hot),  sufficient  to  soften 
the  corn  and  fill  the  sand  or  cotton.  Water  is  poured  into  the  tin  on 
top  of  the  trays.  The  amount  necessary  can  be  determined  by  the 
drainage  showing  in  the  bottom  tray.  It  is  unnecessary  to  put  on 
more  water  than  just  enough  to  keep  the  sand  or  cotton  moist.  The 
set  of  trays  should  then  be  kept  in  a  room  at  a  temperature  between 
70  and  80  degrees  F.  for  a  period  of  four  days.  In  examining  the  corn 
if  two  or  more  seeds  are  found  which  have  not  germinated  in  a  hole, 
say  No.  7,  the  ear  in  the  rack  can  be  easily  located  and  discarded.  The 
racks  of  corn  should  bear  a  tag  corresponding  with  the  letter  on  each 
tray,  for  instance  Rack  D  should  correspond  to  Tray  D.  You  can, 
with  this  apparatus,  test  288  ears  or  enough  to  plant  about  twenty-five 
acres  of  corn. 

Another  Plan  of  Germinator 

This  germinator  is  made  from  any  box  25  inches  or  more  wide,  from 
4  to  6  inches  high  and  about  25  inches  in  length  for  each  bushel  of  corn 
to  be  tested.  This  is  filled  with  moist  sawdust  to  within  two  inches  of 
the  top.  A  piece  of  muslin  is  moistened  and  with  an  indelible  pencil 
marked  off  in  squares  2.|  inches  each  way  so  that  when  the  cloth  is 
laid  on  the  sawdust  in  the  box  there  shall  be  10  squares  on  the  cloth 
across  the  box.  In  a  box  25  inches  square,  there  will  be  ten  rows  of 
squares  and  ten  squares  in  a  row. 

The  ears  of  corn  are  laid  in  rows  on  a  table,  floor  or  board  and  marked 
in  tens.  Beginning  with  ear  No.  lat  one  end  of  the  row,  take  out  6 
kernels  from  different  parts  of  the  ear.  Place  these  in  square  No.  1 
at  the  upper  left  hand  corner  of  the  box.  Place  the  kernels  from  ear 
10  in  square  10  at  the  adjacent  corner  from  No.  1.  Place  No.  11 
immediately  below  No.  1,  etc.  When  six  kernels  from  each  ear  have 
thus  been  placed  in  the  box,  cover  with  a  piece  of  wet  muslin  larger  than 

99 


the  box  and  place  moist  but  not  saturated  sawdust  over  all  to  the 
top  of  the  box. 

Before  placing  corn  in  the  germinator,  sterilize  the  sawdust  and 
cloths  by  boiling  or  by  the  application  of  steam  to  destroy  fungus 
spores.  Leave  germinator  at  room  temperature,  from  50  to  70  de- 
grees F.,  for  from  six  to  eight  days,  until  sprouts  are  from  one  to  two 
inches  long.  To  read  the  test,  carefully  roll  back  upper  muslin  with 
sawdust  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  remove  the  kernels  from  their 
places.  Examine  roots  and  stems.  Wherever  a  kernel  is  found 
having  failed  to  germinate  or  having  no  root  or  no  stem  or  a  weak, 
thin,  spindling  root  or  stem,  discard  the  ear  from  which  it  was  taken. 
In  this  way  perfect  germinating  corn  can  be  secured. 

Cultivation 

The  nature  of  the  cultivation  of  corn  depends,  in  a  great  measure, 
upon  the  character  and  depth  of  the  seed-bed.  If  the  seed-bed  is  deep 
and  thoroughly  pulverized,  the  cultivator  shovels  can  be  run  to  a 
greater  depth  without  injury  to  the  plants  than  if  it  is  shallow  and 
lumpy. 


An  Excellent  Tool  for  Cultivating  Corn 


Any  mechanical  operations  that  tend  to  disturb  the  roots  necessarily 
interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  plant.  The  natural  growth  in  size  and 
length  of  corn  roots  moves  the  soil  sufficiently  to  admit  air  and  moisture, 
providing  the  seed-bed  is  of  good  tilth. 


100 


Cultivation  is  intended  to  remove  weeds,  keep  the  surface  in  condition 
to  readily  absorb  rain,  and  maintain  a  surface  mulch  or  blanket  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  soil  moisture.  A  surface  mulch  is  made  effective 
by  stirring  the  soil.  After  a  mulch  is  formed  and  remains  untouched  for 
a  protracted  period,  the  soil  particles  adjust  themselves  in  such  a  way 
that  the  mulch  becomes  ineffective;  hence,  the  necessity,  even  though 
no  rain  falls,  to  stir  the  surface  at  least  every  two  weeks  during  the  grow- 
ing season.  Again,  if  a  mulch  is  a  smooth  fine  dust  blanket,  it  will  not 
promote  rapid  absorption  of  water  in  case  of  rain,  but  rather  tends  to 
cause  it  to  run  away.  The  most  effective  mulch  is  slightly  coarse  or 
gi-anular,  and  left  in  a  roughened  state  instead  of  smooth. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  while  we  are  attempting  with  the  mulch 
to  preserve  moisture,  we  must  not  have  that  mulch  of  such  a  nature  that 
water  cannot  be  absorbed  in  the  event  of  rain. 

Years  of  demonstrations  on  an  extensive  scale  convinces  the  writer 
that  the  following  plan  of  operations  will  result  in  less  failures  and  more 
large  yields  than  any  other  plan  devised. 

A  deep  seed-bed  is  the  first  thing  to  provide.  After  the  cofn  is 
planted,  it  should  be  rolled,  either  with  a  smooth  or  corrugated  roller  for 
the  purpose  of  packing  the  soil  around  the  kernels,  a  condition  necessary 
to  promote  rapid  germination.  In  sections  where  the  wind  blows  hard, 
a  corrugated  roller  run  at  right  angles  with  the  wind,  will,  in  a  measure, 
prevent  soil  from  blowing. 

As  soon  as  the  corn  begins  to  break  through  the  ground,  or  even 
before,  a  weeder  or  peg-tooth  harrow  should  be  used.     These  imple- 


The  Corn  Plant  on  the  Left  Is  in  a  Deep  Seed-Bed  . .  Deep  Cultivation  Did  Not  Destroy 

the  Roots  ..  The  One  on  the  Right  Is  in  a  Shallow  Seed-Bed  ..  Deep  Cultivation 

Pruned  the  Roots 

101 


ments  remove  weeds  and  keep  the  surface  in  condition  to  receive  moist- 
ure as  well  as  to  retain  it. 

After  the  corn  is  three  or  four  inches  high,  one  deep  cultivation  is 
admissible.  As  soon  as  the  roots  begin  to  spread  between  the  rows,  the 
corn  should  not  be  cultivated  deep  enough  to  cut  them  or  in  any  way 
interfere  with  their  growth.  There  is  less  danger  of  cutting  and  dis- 
turbing roots  in  a  deep  seed-bed  than  in  one  that  is  shallow. 

Length  and  Depth  of  Roots 

The  depth  to  which  corn  roots  grow  depends  upon  the  mechanical  con- 
dition of  the  seed-bed  and  the  subsoil;  also  upon  the  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  ground.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  if  the  soil  is  wet  in  the  spring 
when  the  roots  are  developing,  the  lateral  roots  will  be  found  much 
nearer  the  surface  than  if  the  ground  is  dry.  If  the  surface  soil  is  not 
moist,  roots  will  necessarily  go  downward  seeking  moisture. 

Professor  King,  of  Wisconsin,  has  made  elaborate  experiments  on  the 
distribution  of  corn  roots.  He  found  "that  nine  days  after  the  seed  was 
sown,  roots  had  grown  laterally  to  a  distance  of  sixteen  inches  and  that 
some  of  them  had  reached  a  depth  of  eight  inches.  Some  of  the  lateral 
roots,  however,  were  three  inches  from  the  surface  at  a  distance  of  six 
inches  from  the  seed.  Eighteen  days  after  planting,  the  tips  of  the 
longest  of  the  lateral  roots  were  eighteen  inches  from  the  seed  and  were 
five  inches  from  the  surface.  The  greatest  depth  attained  at  this  stage 
was  twelve  inches.  Twenty-seven  days  after  planting,  the  lateral  roots 
were  twenty-four  inches  and  their  tips  four  inches  below  the  surface. 
The  greatest  depth  reached  was  eighteen  inches.  In  another  trial  it  was 
found  that  forty- two  days  after  the  seed  was  planted,  when  the  plant 
was  eighteen  inches  high,  the  roots  had  penetrated  to  a  depth  of  eighteen 
inches  and  spread  laterally  to  a  distance  of  three  feet  five  inches.  When 
corn  was  three  feet  high,  the  entire  seed-bed  to  a  depth  of  two  feet  was 
completely  filled  with  roots,  the  surface  leaders  being  six  inches  from  the 
surface.  When  the  corn  was  in  tassel,  the  upper  three  feet  of  soil  was 
full  of  roots  and  the  surface  leaders  were  scarcely  five  inches  deep.  At 
maturity  the  roots  had  reached  a  depth  of  four  feet,  and  many  lateral 
roots  were  within  four  inches  of  the  surface." 

Had  the  soil  been  extremely  dry  during  the  growing  season,  the  roots 
would  have  been  much  deeper.  Had  it  been  very  wet,  they  would  have 
been  nearer  the  surface. 

Kind  of  Cultivator 

The  best  and  most  economical  implement  for  the  farmer  to  use  is  a 
combination  cultivator,  using  the  shovels  during  the  first  cultivation 
and  subsequently  taking  them  off  and  substituting  for  them  small  sur- 
face shovels  known  as  sweeps.  Sweep  shovels  can  be  worked  extremely 
close  to  the  hill,  and  owing  to  the  fact  that  their  depth  is  easily  regulated, 

102 


there  is  no  danger  of  cutting  or  disturbing  the  roots.  Again,  the  sweep 
shovel,  while  it  forms  a  splendid  mulch,  leaves  the  ground  in  a  rough- 
ened state. 

Gopher  knives  are  often  used  for  surface  cultivation,  but  owing  to  the 
fact  that  they  shave  the  surface,  cracks  are  not  well  filled,  especially  if 
the  ground  is  hard,  and  the  smooth  surface,  after  the  shaving  process, 
does  not  easily  admit  rain;  or,  in  other  words,  the  proper  mulch  is  not 
formed.  "= 


Sweeps,  Gopher  Blades  and  Shovels  Can  Be  Used  on  this  Corn  Cultivator 
Sweeps  Are  Splendid  for  Surface  Cultivation 


By  using  the  combination  cultivator,  the  farmer  can  easily  adapt  his 
shovels  to  the  condition  of  the  soil.  If  the  seed-bed  is  deep  and  the 
roots  are  four  or  five  inches  from  the  surface,  he  can  substitute  for  the 
sweep  a  small  shovel,  which  is  very  desirable  in  some  soils.  If  the  soil  is 
extremely  loose  and  mellow,  and  it  is  thought  desirable  to  use  the  gopher 
blades,  they  can  easily  be  placed  on  the  shank  of  the  same  type  of  culti- 
vator. I  merely  mention  this  implement  for  the  reason  that  in  culti- 
vating corn,  not  less  than  two  and  quite  often  three  types  of  shovels  are 

103 


necessary  to  meet  all  of  the  requirements,  and  it  is  more  economical  to 
have  two  or  three  sets  of  shovels  for  one  cultivator  than  to  have  a 
separate  cultivator  for  each  type  of  shovel. 

After  the  corn  has  attained  a  growth  too  high  to  straddle  the  row,  a 
mulch  should  be  maintained  by  running  a  one-horse  mulch  harrow 
between  the  rows,  going  over  the  ground  often  enough  to  destroy  weeds 
and  prevent  the  surface  from  baking. 

When  farmers  realize  that  by  adapting  the  right  tool  to  different  con- 
ditions as  they  arise,  they  can  increase  their  crops  from  five  to  twenty 
bushels  per  acre,  they  will  then  appreciate  the  value  of  scientific  or 
common-sense  cultivation. 

For  surface  cultivation,  the  disc  cultivator  also  gives  excellent  service. 
The  dirt  can  be  thrown  to  or  from  the  hill  as  may  be  required  and  the 
leveling  irons  leave  the  surface  in  splendid  condition. 


HOW  TO  RAISE  100  BUSHELS  OF  CORN  PER  ACRE 

Brief  Recapitulation  of  the  Essential  Features 

TO  raise  100  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  is  not  a  difficult  task  if  certain 
specific  features  are  carefully  observed.  If  all  of  the  "ifs"  are  over- 
come, and  they  can  be,  the  task  is  made  exceedingly  easy.  The  follow- 
ing figures  will  give  the  farmer  an  idea  of  what  must  be  done  to 
secure  the  yield: 

An  acre  of  corn  should  have  3,556  hills,  and  each  hill  should  contain  at 
least  3  stalks,  or  10,668  stalks  on  an  acre.  Each  stalk  should  have  1  ear, 
and  an  acre  as  many  ears,  namely,  10,668,  as  there  are  stalks.  The 
average  ear  of  corn  weighs  12  ounces.  If,  however,  the  ears  weigh  an 
average  of  10|  ounces,  there  would  be  112,014  ounces.  One  bushel  of 
70  pounds  weighs  1,120  ounces.  Divide  the  total  number  of  ounces  on 
an  acre  (112,014)  by  the  number  of  ounces  in  a  bushel  (1,120),  and  we 
have  100  bushels  and  a  slight  fraction. 

1.  In  order  to  accomplish  that  result,  the  soil  must  be  rich  enough  to 
grow  three  healthy  stalks  to  the  hill  and  mature  at  least  three  good  ears. 

2.  The  seed-bed  must  be  deep,  thoroughly  ventilated,  well  pulver- 
ized and  made  compact. 

3.  A  sufficient  amount  of  water  must  be  stored  in  the  deeper  sub- 
soils to  prevent  a  retarding  of  growth  in  the  event  of  drouth. 

4.  Seed  should  be  pure-bred  and  have  strong  vitality. 

104 


5.  Cultivation  should  be  thorough  and  repeated  often  enough  to 
maintain  a  mulch  to  prevent  the  escape  of  moisture  and  to  remove 
weeds. 

6.  Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  prune  or  even  disturb  roots 
when  cultivating. 

The  Seed-Bed 

Corn  roots  require  room  and  freedom;  therefore,  the  seed-bed  should 
be  deep  and  mellow.  A  seed-bed  should  be  thoroughly  ventilated  and 
well  drained  for  the  reason  that  corn  roots  will  not  tolerate  a  soggy  home, 
and  soil  bacteria  and  plant  roots  require  free  atmospheric  oxygen.  The 
seed-bed  should  be  compact  in  order  to  give  the  roots  a  firm  hold  on  the 
particles  of  soil  and  to  promote  perfect  capillary  attraction. 

Fertility 

The  plant  must  be  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  all  of  the  essential 
elements  which  enter  into  plant  food  compounds.  The  elements  found 
in  the  soil  are  phosphorus,  potash,  sulphur,  lime,  iron,  magnesia  and 
soda.  Other  elements  of  fertility  are  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen  and 
hydrogen. 

Carbon 

which  composes  the  major  portion  of  the  plant  is  secured  from  the  air. 
This,  however,  cannot  be  utilized  by  the  plant  unless  the  leaves  of  the 
plant  are  in  such  a  healthy,  vigorous  condition  that  carbon-dioxide,  of 
which  carbon  is  a  component  part,  is  readily  absorbed.  Good  seed 
means  a  quick  growth  and  an  abundance  of  healthy  leaves. 

Oxygen  and  Hydrogen 

are  furnished  both  from  the  air  and  water;  hence,  the  supply  of  water 
should  be  adequate  and  available. 

Nitrogen 

is  secured  from  the  air  through  the  legume,  a  plant  which  should 
precede  corn.  Of  the  legumes  which  give  the  best  results,  clover  should 
be  selected.  This  plant  furnishes  nitrogen  in  abundance,  it  grows  deep, 
and  is  equipped  with  an  abundance  of  roots  which  furnish  a  rich  feeding 
area  for  the  corn. 

Barnyard  Manure 

should  not  be  overlooked.  This  substance  contains  all  of  the  plant  food 
elements  which  enter  into  corn.  It  tends  to  assist  in  the  absorption  of 
moisture,  and  on  account  of  fermentation,  it  makes  the  seed-bed  warm, 
especially  in  the  spring  of  the  year  when  an  early  growth  is  very 
desirable. 

The  Value  of  Humus 

to  maintain  nitrogen,  also,  is  a  feature  to  be  considered. 

106 


Lime 

may  be  necessary.  Old  land  is  apt  to  be  sour,  a  condition  disastrous  to 
many  soil  bacteria,  especially  those  that  take  available  organic  nitrogen. 
When  soil  is  sour,  finely-ground  lime  rock  should  be  applied  in  amounts 
ranging  from  two  hundred  pounds  to  two  tons  per  acre,  depending  upon 
the  acidity  of  the  soil.  Lime  not  only  neutralizes  the  acid  in  the  soil, 
but  it  improves  its  physical  condition,  gives  it  new  life  and  assists  in 
making  available  other  plant  food  elements,  especially  potash. 

Rotation 

Corn  should  always  be  raised  in  a  rotation,  following  clover  if  possible. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  clover  roots  not  only  furnish  nitrogen,  but 
when  they  decay  in  the  deeper  subsoils,  they  admit  air  and  water  which 
combine  with  plant  food  elements.  Compounds  thus  formed  are 
brought  to  the  seed-bed  by  capillary  attraction  and  are  utilized  by  the 
corn  roots,  as  is  evidenced  by  a  marked  increase  in  the  crop. 

Cultivation 

Cultivation  should  be  thorough.  The  depth  to  cultivate,  the  charac- 
ter of  the  cultivation  and  the  number  of  times  to  cultivate  com  must  be 
determined  by  conditions. 

Note 


The  digestible  nutrients  in  corn  are: 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  100  Pounds 

Total  Dry  Matter  in  100  Pounds 
89.4 

Crude                 Carbo- 

Protein               hydrates 

7.8                     66.8 

Fat 
4.3 

The  digestible  nutrients  in  corn  stover  are: 


Total  Dry  Matter  in  100  Pounds 
59.5 


Digestible  Nutrients  in  100  Pounds 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
31.2 


Fat 
0.7 


OATS 

LIKE  the  other  cereals,  there  are  two  classes,  namely,  spring  and 
winter.     Winter  oats  are  raised  very  generally  throughout   the 
Southern  states. 

106 


Soil 

Oats  require  a  fairly  rich  soil.  While  a  heavy  loam  is  very  desirable, 
if  it  contains  too  much  organic  matter,  the  growth  of  straw  will  be  very 
rank  and  liable  to  lodge,  and  the  grain  is  not  apt  to  be  plump  and  heavy. 

Fertility 

It  is  not  advisable  to  apply  manure  direct  to  oat  land.  Oats  should 
follow  a  crop  that  has  been  manured,  unless  the  ground  naturally  con- 
tains sufficient  fertility. 

Rotation 

The  oat  has  very  deep  and  vigorous  roots  and  is  regarded  as  a  better 
rustler  than  wheat.  If  oats  follow  corn  and  the  land  was  not  plowed 
during  the  fall,  a  good  crop  can  usually  be  secured  by  thoroughly  discing 
the  land  without  plowing,  provided  it  was  well  cultivated  and  manured 
for  corn.  If  the  land  is  plowed  in  the  spring,  it  is  apt  to  be  loose,  causing 
the  oats  to  lodge  in  the  event  of  heavy  storms.  Oats  should  follow 
rather  than  precede  wheat  in  a  rotation. 

Varieties 

It  is  impossible  to  recommend  any  special  variety  for  all  sections  of  the 
country.  In  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  where  oats  are  grown  very 
extensively,  it  was  found  that  a  variety  known  as  the  "Kherson"  made 
an  average  yield  of  sixty-five  and  nine-tenths  bushels.  The  Sixty-day 
and  the  Swedish  Select  made  an  average  of  sixty-one  and  six-tenths 
bushels.  The  Kherson  variety  proved  to  have  the  greatest  smut- 
resisting  qualities.  In  Indiana,  where  tests  were  carried  on  for  a  period 
of  five  years,  there  was  very  little  difference  in  the  yield  between  varie- 
ties known  as  Czar  of  Russia,  Great  Dakota,  Swedish  Select  and  Silver 
Mine.  In  Nebraska,  experiments  were  carried  on  for  a  period  of  five 
years,  demonstrating  that  the  Kherson  gave  the  highest  yield. 

Seed 

Home-grown  seed  is  considered  equal  to,  if  not  better  than,  seed 
brought  from  another  section.  Iowa  made  some  extensive  experiments 
during  the  years  1910  and  1911.  Imported  seed  made  an  average  yield 
of  forty-six  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  home-grown  seed  made  an  average 
of  forty-seven  and  one-tenth  bushels  per  acre.  The  best  crops  from  seed 
raised  in  1910  were  as  follows:  Great  American  seed  imported  from  Illi- 
nois made  a  jdeld  of  seventy-two  and  two-tenths  bushels.  Illinois  Big 
Four  made  a  yield  of  seventy-one  and  two- tenths  bushels.  Michigan 
Brobesteier  made  a  yield  of  seventy  bushels.  Home-grown  Silver  Mine 
made  a  yield  of  seventy  and  six-tenths  bushels. 

The  Iowa  Experimental  Station  concludes  that  "Northern  grown  seed 

107 


is  not  superior  for  corn-belt  conditions.     The  best  corn-belt  seed  is  bet- 
ter than  the  farmer  is  likely  to  purchase  elsewhere." 

"Where  importations  have  been  made  with  successful  results,  the 
increase  has  been  due  to  the  securing  of  a  better  adapted  variety  and  not 
to  the  quality  of  the  seed  purchased." 

Diseases 

It  is  estimated  that  from  two  to  five  per  cent  of  the  oat  crop  is 
destroyed  by  smut.  Unless  the  smut  is  killed  in  the  seed  before  it  is 
planted,  it  is  very  apt  to  transmit  the  disease  to  the  crop.  If,  however, 
the  farmer  will  treat  his  seed  with  formaldehyde,  he  can  in  a  great  meas- 
ure prevent  it.  In  treating  the  seed,  one  pound  or  pint  of  formaldehyde 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  about  forty  gallons  of  water.  This 
amount  will  treat  forty  bushels.  No  better  rules  governing  the  use  of 
formaldehyde  can  be  given  than  those  presented  in  Bulletin  No,  128 
issued  by  the  Ames  Iowa  Agricultural  Station. 

"1.  Spread  out  forty  bushels  of  oats  on  the  floor  five  or  six  inches 
deep. 

"2.  Mix  one  pound  of  formaldehyde  (40  per  cent)  with  forty  gallons 
of  water.     Stir  well. 

"3.  Sprinkle  the  oats  with  the  mixture  in  the  barrel  until  they  are 
saturated.  It  is  well  at  this  point  for  one  man  to  shovel  the  oats  into  a 
pile  while  another  sprinkles.  They  are  not  exposed  to  the  air  for  so 
long  a  time  and  less  gas  is  lost.  See  that  the  pile  is  thoroughly  soaked 
when  finished. 

"4.  Cover  the  pile  at  once  with  the  blankets  and  sacks  so  as  to  keep 
the  gas  in  where  it  will  be  effective.  (It  is  this  free  gas  that  does  the 
work.) 

"5.  Leave  the  pile  covered  for  six  to  ten  hours  (over  night);  then 
remove  the  blankets  and  shovel  out  thin  to  dry.  Shovel  them  over 
from  time  to  time. 

"These  oats  may  be  sown  as  soon  as  they  are  dry  enough  to  run 
through  the  drill.  Make  allowance  for  the  swollen  condition  of  the  seed 
in  setting  the  drill.  It  is  a  convenient  plan  to  treat  the  oats  late  in  the 
afternoon,  then  they  can  be  left  over  night  in  the  pile  without  danger  of 
heating." 

If  more  oats  are  treated  than  are  needed  for  seed,  they  may  be  fed 
after  one  or  two  days.     All  the  gas  will  have  escaped. 

Oats  for  Forage 

If  the  oats  are  sown  thick  and  are  cut  just  as  the  grain  is  in  the  dough 
and  properly  cured,  they  make  splendid  feed  for  cows  and  young  stock. 
In  curing,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  from  getting  wet,  nor 
should  they  be  permitted  to  lie  on  the  ground  until  they  are  sun-burned. 

108 


The  digestive  nutrients  in  oat  products  are  as  follows : 


Total  Dry 

Matter  in 

100  Pounds 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  100  Pounds 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Oats 

Lbs. 
89.6 

Lbs. 
10.7 

Lbs. 
50.3 

Lbs. 
3.8 

Ground  Oats _  _'. 

88.0 

10.1 

52  5 

3  7 

Oat  Meal 

92.1 

11.9 

65.1 

6.7 

Oat  Middlings . 

91.2 

13.1 

57.7 

6.5 

Oat  Straw 

90.8 

13 

39  5 

0.8 

WHEAT 

WHEAT  forms  the  principal  food  of  man,  not  only  in  the  United 
States,  but  in  all  civilized  countries.  The  origin  of  this  cereal  is 
not  known.  Evidence  exists,  however,  that  it  grew  wild  many  thou- 
sand years  before  Christ.  History  records  that  it  was  cultivated  in 
China  three  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

The  first  wheat  of  which  a  record  exists  had  but  one  kernel  to  a  head. 
It  is  assumed  that  by  cultivation,  seed-selection  and  breeding,  it  has 
been  gradually  developed  to  its  present  state. 

Wheat  is  grown  very  universally  over  the  western  continent.  While 
it  is  known  that  wheat  does  not  thrive  well  north  and  south  of  the 
equator  to  a  distance  of  twenty-five  degrees  at  a  low  altitude,  it  does 
thrive  at  the  equator  on  the  mountain  plains  of  Colombia  and  Ecuador 
at  an  altitude  of  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

It  thrives  on  the  Klondike  river,  a  latitude  of  65  degrees  and  30  min- 
utes, at  an  altitude  of  two  thousand  feet.  About  eighty  per  cent  of  the 
wheat  produced  in  the  United  States  is  grown  at  an  elevation  of  between 
five  hundred  and  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  sea  level.  One  authority 
states  that  the  greatest  elevation  at  which  wheat  has  been  raised  is  in 
Asia  in  the  Himalaya  mountains  at  an  elevation  of  eleven  thousand  feet. 
In  the  great  wheat  belt  of  Kansas,  the  elevation  is  about  sixteen  hun- 
dred feet.  Colorado  has  developed  a  type  of  wheat  adapted  to  a  region 
ranging  from  six  to  nine  thousand  feet  above  sea  level. 


Varieties 

While  there  are  more  than  one  thousand  varieties  of  wheat,  there  are 
less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  varieties  grown  successfully  in  the 
United  States.     No  one  variety  is  regarded  best  under  all  conditions; 


109 


110 


the  climate,  soil  and  precipitation  should  determine  the  variety  which 
will  be  the  most  profitable.  In  the  United  States,  a  winter  wheat 
known  as  Turkey  Red  is  the  favorite,  and  Fife  and  Blue-stem  are 
regarded  as  the  best  spring  wheat  varieties.  In  the  semi-arid  west,  the 
Durham  or  Macaroni  are  becoming  very  popular.  Farmers  should, 
however,  study  conditions  very  carefully  and  adopt  a  variety  and  strain 
best  suited  to  their  soil  and  chmatic  conditions. 

Soils 

The  best  wheat  soil  is  a  clay  loam  with  a  clay  subsoil,  although  it  does 

well  in  any  fertile  soil  where  the  standing  water  line  is  not  too  near  the 

surface. 

The  Requirements 

for  wheat  are  a  rich  soil  and  deep,  thoroughly  pulverized  seed-bed, 

containing  a  reasonable  amount  of  moisture  and  free  atmospheric 

oxygen.  , 

Germination 

Three  things  are  necessary  to  promote  germination,  namely,  moisture, 
warmth  and  oxygen.  If  any  one  of  these  features  is  absent,  germination 
will  stop.  The  period  required  to  germinate  depends  upon  these  condi- 
tions. Wheat  will  not  germinate  below  forty-one  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
nor  above  one  hundred  and  four  degrees.  At  the  minimum  tempera- 
ture, it  requires  from  six  to  seven  days,  and  at  ten  degrees  higher  the 
time  is  shortened  to  three  or  four  days.  Germination  is  most  rapid 
when  the  soil  is  at  a  temperature  between  eighty  and  eighty-five 
degrees.  During  the  process  of  germination,  wheat  requires  water.  A 
grain  will  absorb  during  the  period  about  six  times  its  own  weight. 

Loss  in  Weight  During  Germination 

One  authority  states  that  a  grain  loses  about  1.5  per  cent  of  its  own 
weight  during  germination  in  twenty-four  hours,  6.7  per  cent  in  ninety 
hours,  and  11.8  per  cent  in  one  hundred  and  forty-four  hours.  From 
the  above,  it  is  plain  that  wheat  loses  very  materially  if  it  sprouts  either 
in  the  shock,  stack  or  bin.  Deterioration  on  account  of  chemical 
changes  is  also  very  material. 

Roots 

Wheat  roots  are  very  abundant  and  very  long.  They  penetrate  the 
ground  from  a  few  inches  to  five  or  six  feet.  Roots  have  been  traced  to 
a  depth  of  seven  feet.  The  development  depends  wholly  upon  the  con- 
dition of  the  soil.  It  is.  stated  that  if  the  roots  of  one  plant  are  placed 
end  to  end,  that  they  will  reach  a  distance  of  from  fifteen  hundred  to 

seventeen  hundred  feet. 

Stooling 

Wheat  stools  are  side  shoots,  the  number  varying  from  five  to  fifty. 


One  case  is  recorded  in  the  United  States,  where  fifty-two  bearing  stems 
were  formed.  Cool  weather  and  early  seeding  increases  stooling.  Some 
remarkable  stories  are  recorded  as  to  the  number  of  stools  that  a  single 
grain  will  throw  out.  Pling  states  that  in  Northern  Africa  and  Italy,  it 
is  not  uncommon  to  find  from  two  hundred  to  four  hundred  stalks  grow- 
ing from  a  single  kernel.  Humboldt  states  that  in  Mexico  a  single 
grain  will  produce  from  forty  to  seventy  stalks. 

Seed-Bed 

The  seed-bed  should  be  made  deep,  provided  the  subsoil  is  not  a  loose 
sand  or  gravel  and  too  near  the  surface.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
roots  are  inclined  to  grow  deep,  it  is  advisable,  if  the  subsoil  is  compact, 
even  in  humid  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  abundant,  to  use  a  subsoil 
plow  for  the  purpose  of  mellowing  the  ground,  thereby  facilitating  deep 
penetration.  If  the  seed-bed  is  not  deep,  the  roots,  owing  to  their 
fragile  condition,  will  not  penetrate  a  very  compact  plow  sole,  but  will 
spread  out,  taking  the  course  of  least  resistance,  and  in  the  event  of 
drouth,  the  plant  will  die  or  suffer  for  lack  of  moisture  on  account  of 
their  nearness  to  the  surface. 

If  the  seed-bed  is  deep  and  mellow  and  the  sub-stratum  is  permeable, 
delicate  roots  will  penetrate  into  the  soil  where  water  is  secured  and 
where  some  plant  food  is  available.  The  practice  of  drilling  wheat 
without  plowing,  while  it  may  prove  successful  occasionally,  as  a  general 
rule  means  a  very  deficient  crop.  The  writer  had  an  opportunity  to 
observe  the  two  conditions  in  the  west  during  an  extremely  dry  season. 
Wheat  drilled  in  corn  ground  where  corn  was  listed,  but  not  plowed, 
made  a  yield  of  from  four  and  a  half  to  six  bushels  per  acre.  In  an 
adjoining  locality  where  the  ground  was  plowed  deep,  having  been 
disced  before  it  was  plowed  and  subsequently  disced,  in  spite  of  the  pro- 
tracted drouth  that  season,  made  a  yield  of  over  thirty  bushels  per  acre, 
showing  the  value  of  a  deep,  well-made  seed-bed. 

In  a  locality  in  South  Dakota  where  the  ground  was  plowed  shallow, 
the  wheat  roots  did  not  penetrate  to  a  sufficient  depth  to  hold  the  plant, 
and  during  a  drouth  when  the  wheat  was  a  few  inches  high,  it  was  com- 
pletely blown  out  of  the  ground  by  the  high  wind.  Had  the  same  land 
been  plowed  deep,  the  wheat  would  not  have  been  dislodged  by  blowing 
nor  would  it  have  perished  for  lack  of  moisture,  as  was  evidenced  where 
the  deep  seed-bed  was  made  in  the  same  section. 

It  is  a  safeguard  against  the  possibility  of  a  drouth  to  disc  the  ground 
before  it  is  plowed  in  order  that  all  trash  may  be  worked  into  the  seed- 
bed and  the  surface  lumps  pulverized  so  that  when  the  furrow  slice  is 
turned,  the  contact  is  compact  between  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and 
the  turned  portion  of  dirt.  The  discing  prevents  the  formation  of  air 
spaces,  a  condition  that  materially  interferes  with  the  upward  move- 

112 


ment  of  water.  Again,  the  seed-bed  should  be  thoroughly  disced  until 
all  of  the  lumps  are  pulverized  in  order  to  make  plant  food  accessible  to 
the  roots.  Plant  food  is  held  in  solution  and  forms  a  film;  or,  in  other 
words,  clings  to  each  particle  of  soil.  The  Kttle  delicate  root  filaments 
are  thrown  around  these  particles  of  soil  and  absorb,  through  the  process 
of  osmosis,  the  food  and  moisture.  If  lumps  exist,  the  roots  will  not 
penetrate  them;  hence,  the  feeding  area  is  restricted  just  in  proportion 
to  the  number  and  density  of  the  lumps  in  the  seed-bed.  The  seed-bed 
should  also  be  compact.  Compactness  is  essential  to  capillary  attrac- 
tion, and  it  is  also  necessary  in  order  that  the  plant  roots  can  receive  a 
firm  hold  in  the  soil. 

Air 

Atmospheric  oxygen  is  necessary  to  plant  roots;  or,  in  other  words,  to 
soil  bacteria,  which  convert  plant  food  into  compounds.  If  the  seed-bed 
is  not  deep  and  thoroughly  pulverized,  it  is  not  well  aerated.  If,  for  any 
reason,  the  soil  becomes  surcharged  with  water,  so  that  the  air  spaces 
between  the  particles  of  soil  are  filled  up,  the  air  is  driven  out  and  the 
growth  comes  to  a  standstill,  and  if  the  clogging  continues  even  for  a  day 
or  two,  the  plant  will  smother.  Every  farmer  has  seen  this  coj 
where  water  has  stood  for  twenty-four  or  forty-eight  hours  itC^-whedV  ^/^ 
field.  /^  ,.    ^      ^^. 

Rotation  h^ 

It  is  well  known  to  every  wheat-grower  that  if  he  plants  th^  (}^ff^^^)^ 
the  same  land  for  a  series  of  years,  the  production  will  becom6^1^ss  each     '  '^ 
year,  until,  finally,  he  will  hardly  get  his  seed  back.  ^^S^ 

It  is  thought  by  some  that  plant  roots  throw  off  a  deleterious  excretj 
which  is  a  poison  to  its  own  kind,  but  that  the  excreta  is  a  food  or  stimu- 
lant to  plants  of  a  different  variety;  while  others  claim  that  a  plant 
exhausts  its  specific  requirements  from  the  soil  to  such  an  extent  that 
there  is  not  enough  fertility  left  to  make  a  crop.  Beyond  question,  both 
theories  have  merit  in  a  degree,  but  certainly  the  second  one  is  far  from 
being  correct,  for  we  know  that  after  wheat  has  been  grown  on  soil  until 
a  crop  cannot  be  produced,  the  same  soil  will  make  a  remarkable  crop 
of  barley,  rye,  buckwheat  or  millet,  using  practically  the  same  plant 
food  elements,  showing  that  fertility  still  exists,  but  for  some  reason 
cannot  be  utilized  by  the  wheat. 

A  piece  of  land  which  produced  two  hundred  bushels  of  potatoes  per 
acre  the  first  two  years,  finally  failed  to  grow  twenty  bushels  after  it  had 
been  cropped  for  sixteen  years,  but  did  make  the  seventeenth  year 
seventy-five  bushels  of  oats  per  acre.  Many  other  like  experiments 
might  be  given. 

Regardless  of  theories,  however,  we  know  that  a  scientific  rotation 
always  results  in  an  increased  yield.  Wheat  makes  its  greatest  yield 
when  following  a  legume.     It  also  does  well  when  sown  on  corn  ground, 

113 


if  corn  followed  sod  or  a  legume,  or  after  root  crops,  especially  after 
potatoes.  Wheat  should  not  follow  oats,  rye,  buckwheat  or  barley;  it 
does,  however,  do  well  after  flax  if  the  flax  was  grown  on  new  ground. 

A  splendid  rotation  for  the  northern  half  of  the  United  States  is,  first 
year,  a  legume  (clover,  soy  beans,  cow  peas  or  vetch) ;  second  year,  corn, 
well  manured,  and  third  year,  wheat,  seeding  to  clover.  In  the  cotton 
section  of  the  south,  a  splendid  rotation  is,  corn,  planting  cow  peas 
between  the  rows  after  the  last  cultivation.  After  corn  has  been  har- 
vested, disc  thoroughly  before  plowing  and  sow  wheat.  After  the  wheat 
has  been  cut,  drill  in  peas,  unless  the  ground  is  too  hard,  in  which  event 
disc  or  plow  very  shallow.  After  the  peas  have  attained  a  good  growth 
in  the  fall,  plow  deep  after  discing  and  plant  to  cotton  in  the  spring. 
The  ground  can  be  further  enriched  by  adding  barnyard  manure. 

If  the  soil  is  deficient  in  phosphoric  acid,  apply  acid  phosphate  several 
days  before  planting  and  disc  it  into  the  seed-bed  very  thoroughly. 

The  results  of  rotation  in  Minnesota  have  been  remarkable.  Dond- 
linger  makes  the  following  statement:  "Results  already  reached  war- 
rant the  statement  that  the  average  yield  per  acre  of  wheat  can  be 
increased  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent  by  rotating  the  crops  and  manure 
ing."  He  also  calls  attention  to  the  necessity  of  having  a  deep,  well- 
made  seed-bed. 

Fertility 

Like  corn,  wheat  is  greedy  and  exacting.  Wheat  roots  will  not  tol- 
erate a  poorly-made  home,  nor  will  they  thrive  on  short  rations.  If  the 
seed  is  inferior  and  the  seed-bed  shallow  and  not  thoroughly  ventilated, 
atmospheric  and  water  elements  are  not  fully  utilized. 

Of  all  the  plant  food  required  to  make  a  crop  of  wheat,  ninety-seven 
and  six-tenths  per  cent  of  the  dry  substances  of  the  crop  is  composed  of 
nitrogen,  carbon,  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  elements  taken  from  the  atmo- 
sphere and  water.  The  other  inorganic  elements  amounting  to  two  and 
four-tenths  per  cent  are  taken  from  the  soil.  Both  groups  of  elements 
are  inter-dependent;  hence,  while  the  small  per  cent  which  consists  of 
potash,  phosphorus,  silica,  lime,  magnesia,  soda  and  sulphur,  seems 
insignificant,  the  elements  must  be  in  the  soil  in  an  available  form  if  a 
crop  of  wheat  is  made. 

King  says:  "The  crop  of  wheat  which  yields  thirty  bushels  of  grain 
per  acre  demands,  as  indicated  by  chemical  analysis,  forty-eight  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  twenty-one  and  one-tenth  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  (which 
amount  to  ten  and  five-tenths  pounds  of  phosphorus),  twenty-eight  and 
eight-tenths  pounds  of  potash,  nine  and  two-tenths  pounds  of  lime, 
seven  and  one-tenth  pounds  of  magnesia,  seven  and  eight-tenths  pounds 
of  sulphur,  and  ninety-six  and  nine-tenths  pounds  of  silica." 

Dondlinger  makes  the  following  statement  in  his  "Book  of  Wheat": 
"An  acre  of  very  fertile  soil  contains  about  70,000  pounds,  or  two  per 

114 


cent,  of  potash  on  the  first  foot  of  ground.  A  crop  of  wheat  removes 
about  fifteen  pounds  of  potash  from  each  acre.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  the  first  eight  inches  of  soil  contain  on  an  average  enough  nitrogen 
to  last  ninety  years,  enough  phosphoric  acid  to  last  five  hundred  years, 
and  enough  potash  to  last  one  thousand  years.  This  supply  is  mate- 
rially increased  when  we  consider  the  great  depth  penetrated  by  the 
roots  of  wheat." 

Practically  all  agricultural  soils  of  the  United  States  contain  an  inex- 
haustible supply  of  all  of  the  inorganic  elements  mentioned,  except 
phosphorus  and  lime,  and,  possibly,  potash. 

We  know  that  these  inorganic  elements  are  in  the  disintegrated  par- 
ticles of  rock  and  that  they  are  found  not  only  in  the  surface  soils,  but  in 
all  soils  below  the  surface. 

It  is  also  known  that  by  growing  deep-rooting  plants  such  as  the 
alfalfa,  clover  and  many  others,  dormant  plant  food  far  below  the  reach 
of  the  plow  can  be  made  available  and  utilized  by  being  brought  to  the 
plant  roots  in  a  soluble  state  by  capillary  attraction. 

Manures 

We  also  know  that  one-quarter  of  the  nitrogen  and  nearly  all  of  the 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  which  enter  into  a  crop  of  wheat  are  con- 
tained in  bran  screenings  and  middlings,  and  that  fully  eighty  per  cent 
can  be  returned  to  the  soil  if  they  are  fed  to  live-stock  and  the  manure  is 
placed  on  the  ground.  Barnyard  manure  is  an  ideal  fertilizer  for  wheat. 
It  furnishes  all  of  the  plant  food  elements  which  enter  into  the  crop 
besides  organic  matter  which  is  the  main  substance  in  maintaining  nitro- 
gen and  soil  bacteria.  It  also  places  the  soil  in  a  good  physical  condi- 
tion, making  it  mellow  and  permeable.  In  sections  where  manure 
cannot  be  secured,  the  organic  matter  can  be  provided  by  plowing 
under  green  crops  and  the  inorganic  plant  food  elements  such  as  potash, 
phosphorus,  etc.,  can  be  supplied  in  a  commercial  form. 

Lawes  and  Gilbert  give  the  results  of  their  experiments  with  wheat  as 
follows: 

"No  manure  for  forty  years,  averaged  14  bushels;  farm  yard  manure 
for  thirty-two  years,  averaged  32§  bushels." 

Rothamstead  average  of  eight  favorable  harvests: 


Farm  Yard  Manure 
No  Manure 


Weight, 
Per  Bushel 


62  .6  pounds 
60  .5  pounds 


Grain, 
Per  Acre 


2342  pounds 
1156  pounds 


Straw, 
I^er  Acre 


6089  pounds 
2872  pounds 


Eight  unfavorable  harvests: 


Weight, 
Per  Bushel 


Grain, 
Per  Acre 


Straw, 
Per  Acre 


Farm  Yard  Manure 
No  Manure 


57  .4  pound? 
54  .3  pounds 


1967  pounds 
823  pounds 


5574  pounds 
2433  pounds 


Lime 

is  needed,  especially  in  soils  that  have  become  sour  on  account  of  con- 
tinued cropping.  Soil  deficient  in  lime  is  dull  and  stupid,  and  the  wheat 
stalks  are  long-jointed  and  slender,  a  condition  that  causes  them  to 
crinkle.  When  the  soil  seems  to  be  devoid  of  life,  a  test  should  be  made, 
and  if  lime  is  needed,  it  should  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  raw  limestone 
ground  to  a  fine  powder. 

Seed 

In  selecting  wheat  for  seed,  several  important  things  should  be  taken 
into  consideration: 

1.  It  should  be  suited  to  the  climate. 

2.  A  variety  and  strain  which  is  free  from  diseases  and  resists  dis- 
eases. 

3.  Wheat  that  has  the  greatest  yielding  power  and  best  milling 
properties. 

4.  Grain  that  is  free  from  weed  seeds  and  other  growths. 

The  farmer  should  keep  in  mind  that  regardless  of  variety,  the  seed 
should  be  plump  and  healthy.  Plump  seed,  however,  without  con- 
sistency and  weight  is  not  desirable. 

While  wheat  that  has  been  burned  in  the  stack  or  bin,  sprouted  in  the 
shock,  harvested  before  ripe  or  frosted  before  fully  matured,  will  germi- 
nate, it  does  not  possess  the  vitality  needed  to  throw  out  strong  initial 
roots  rapidly  and  a  robust  stem.  A  weak  germination  will  result  in  a 
short,  delicate  root  and  a  sickly  stem,  a  condition  which  is  reflected 
throughout  the  entire  life  of  the  plant. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  where  all  the  light  and  defective  kernels 
are  discarded,  that  the  yield  is  increased  from  thirty  to  forty  per  cent. 

As  an  evidence  of  what  may  be  accomplished  by  selecting  good  seed 
we  give  Hallett's  experiments.  For  five  years  he  selected  the  best  head 
produced  from  the  grains  of  the  best  previously  selected  head : 


Grains 


First  Year  _ . 
Second  Year 
Third  Year 
Fourth  Year 
Fifth  Year.. 


Original  Ear  

Finest  Ear  Raised 

Finest  Ear  Raised 

Heads  Imperfect 

Finest  Ear 

116 


Length, 
Inches 


Number  of 

Grains  on  One 

Ear 


47 
79 
91 

123 


Number  of 

Ears  on 
One  Root 


10 
22 
39 
52 


Seed  Should  Be  Adapted  to  Locality 

It  is  quite  important  to  select  seed  which  is  adapted  or  suited  to  the 
locahty  where  it  is  to  be  planted.  Too  often  a  farmer  will  ship  seed 
from  another  state,  having  been  informed  that  it  made  a  splendid  yield, 
not  knowing  whether  it  is  suited  to  his  land  or  his  locality.  The  best 
results  are  obtained,  as  a  rule,  from  seed  grown  in  the  locality  where  it  is 
to  be  sown,  unless  a  change  is  necessary  on  account  of  the  local  wheat 
being  diseased  or  of  an  inferior  quality.  It  is  not  advisable  to  secure 
wheat  from  a  southern  climate  to  sow  in  a  northern  latitude,  nor  from  a 
humid  section  to  sow  in  the  semi-arid  west.  In  some  instances,  foreign 
varieties  imported  to  the  United  States  have  made  remarkable  records. 
The  most  valuable  importations  have  been  made  from  Russia.  The 
Red  Winter,  a  Russian  wheat,  has  proven  to  be,  not  only  a  high  yielder, 
but  endures  extremely  cold  winters  and  resists  rust  better  than  any  of 
our  native  wheats.  The  Durham  wheat  was  also  secured  from  the  same 
country.  This  variety  not  only  makes  a  splendid  yield,  but  is  very 
drouth-resisting. 

Rusty  Wheat 

should  not  be  sown,  nor  wheat  affected  with  smut.     How  to  treat  wheat 
for  smut  is  given  in  the  chapter  on  oats. 

Weeds 

Another  thing  to  be  carefully  considered  is  keeping  weeds  and  unde- 
sirable growths  from  the  field.  It  is  estimated  that  dockage  on  account 
of  weed  seed  depreciates  the  value  of  the  wheat  crop  annually  in  the 
United  States  at  least  five  million  bushels,  not  taking  into  account  the 
loss  of  moisture  and  plant  food  taken  by  the  weeds  from  the  soil.  Weeds 
to  be  especially  avoided  are:  Russian  and  Canada  thistles,  cheat,  wild 
mustard,  wild  garlic,  cockle,  wheat  thief  and  yellow  berries. 

Insects 

Many  insects  become  very  destructive,  even  to  the  point  of  complete 
annihilation  of  the  crop.  While  remedies  which  are  said  to  be  beneficial 
are  many,  none  of  them  are  regarded  infallible.  In  some  cases  burning 
stubble,  grass  and  all  surface  rubbish  will  destroy  them.  Early,  deep 
and  thorough  tillage  and  crop  rotation  is  sometimes  beneficial.  For  a 
specific  treatment,  the  writer  suggests  calling  an  expert  from  the  local 
agricultural  college.  At  best,  the  process  of  the  eradication  of  destruc- 
tive insects  is  very  slow  and  very  discouraging. 

Seeding 

Without  question,  the  best  method  of  sowing  wheat  is  with  a  drill. 
It  requires  less  seed  and  insures  a  more  even  depth.  If  the  seed  can  be 
covered  with  one  inch  of  moist  earth,  germination  is  rapid  and  the  early 

117 


growth  will  tend  to  smother  weeds.  The  time  to  seed  and  the  amount 
of  seed  to  use  per  acre  depends  upon  the  fertility  and  condition  of  the 
soil  and  the  climate.  The  amount  to  sow  per  acre  ranges  from  two  to 
nine  pecks,  the  usual  amount  being  about  five  and  one-half  pecks. 

Roller  and  Harrow 

If  the  soil  is  light  and  not  compact,  rolling  proves  beneficial  after  sow- 
ing. If  straw,  stubble  or  manure  is  well  mixed  with  the  soil  and  the  cor- 
rugated roller  is  run  at  right  angles  to  the  prevailing  winds,  it  will  pre- 
vent, in  a  measure,  the  soil  from  blowing  away  or  drifting. 


Corrugated  Roller  ..  This  Implement  Is  Invaluable  as  a  Clod  Crusher,  Pulverizer  and 

Mulch  Former 


If  the  soil  is  light  and  loose  around  the  roots  of  winter  wheat  in  the 
spring,  a  corrugated  roller  will  not  only  pack  the  loose  soil  around  the 
roots  to  the  depth  of  several  inches,  but  forms  a  shallow  mulch  which  is 
of  material  benefit  in  conserving  moisture.  Repeated  experiments  have 
demonstrated  that  rolling  winter  wheat  in  the  spring  with  a  corrugated 
roller,  even  when  it  is  beginning  to  joint,  increases  the  crop  from  ten  per 
cent  to  twenty  per  cent.  If  the  ground  is  hard  and  weedy,  and  the 
stand  thin,  a  peg-tooth  harrow  or  weeder  is  of  great  benefit. 


The  digestible  nutrients  in  wheat  products  are  as  follows : 


Total  Dry  Matter 
in  100  Lbs 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  100  Lbs 

Kind 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Wheat 

89.5 

8.8 

67.5 

1.5 

Flour  Wheat  Middlings 

90.0 

16.9               53.6 

4.1 

Shorts 

88.8 

13.0        1        45.7 

4.5 

Wheat  Bran 

88.5 

12.1               37.1 

2.8 

Wheat  Screenings _ 

88.4 

9.6        i        48.2 

1.9 

Wheat  Straw 

90.4 

0.8        i        35.2 

0.4 

BARLEY 

BARLEY  ranks  fourth  in  production  of  the  cereals  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  grown  for  grain,  hay,  pasture  and  soiling.  Barley  is 
not  only  used  for  human  food  and  malting,  but  it  is  a  splendid  food  for 
live-stock,  especially  swine.  When  fed  with  corn  to  live-stock,  it 
doubles  the  market  value  of  both  feeds,  making,  as  it  does,  a  balanced 
ration,  if  given  in  the  right  proportions. 

While  barley  can  be  grown  more  generally  in  the  United  States  than 
any  other  cereal,  its  production  thus  far  has  been  confined  very  largely 
to  the  northern  central  states.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  it  produces  more 
bushels  per  acre  than  wheat  and  usually  commands  a  fair  price,  it  is  to 
the  farmer's  advantage  to  give  it  special  attention. 


Varieties 

The  choice  of  varieties  differs  in  different  localities.  Wisconsin  pro- 
duces about  one-eighth  of  all  that  is  grown  in  the  country.  The  results 
of  extensive  experiments  carried  on  for  a  period  of  ten  years  in  that 
state  are  very  interesting.  The  average  production  from  various  varie- 
ties are  as  follows : 

The  Six-Rowed  Bearded  Variety 

Oderbrucker        -  Averaged  50  . 7  bushels  per  acre. 

Manshury  Averaged  51 .4  bushels  per  acre. 

Silver  King        Averaged  44  . 4  bushels  per  acre. 

Golden  Queen    Averaged  45 . 5  bushels  per  acre. 

The  Beardless  Variety 
made  an  average  of  28.2  bushels  for  two  years. 

119 


The  Hulless  Variety 
made  an  average  of  26.9  bushels  for  four  years. 

The  Two-Rowed  Varieties 

namely,  Chevalier,  Hanna,  Princess  and  Frankleus,  made  an  average 
for  five  years  of  33,  41,  20  and  26  bushels  per  acre. 

The  above  indicates  that  the  six-rowed  variety  is  preferable  to  the 
two-rowed  in  Wisconsin,  and  probably  the  same  results  are  obtained  in 
Minnesota,  the  Dakotas,  Iowa,  Illinois  and  Nebraska. 

Oregon  has  had  the  best  results  from  beardless  varieties,  but  in  the 
southern  states,  Tennessee  winter  and  Union  winter  are  favorites. 

Soils 

Barley  can  be  grown  on  any  fertile  soil,  but  does  best  on  a  porous  silt 
or  clay  loam.  The  roots  are  somewhat  delicate  and  will  not  penetrate 
a  hard-pan;  hence,  the  necessity  of  having  a  well-made,  deep  seed-bed 
sufficiently  compact  to  give  the  roots  a  firm  hold. 

In  dry  sections  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  subsoil  plow,  first,  to  store 
moisture,  and,  second,  to  make  a  mellow  seed-bed.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  plant  barley  on  new  sod  unless  the  furrow  slice  lays  flat  and  is  well 
rotted.  Barley  does  best  wlien  planted  on  fall  plowing,  for  the  reason 
that  fall  plowing  is  usually  well  settled  and  the  turned-under  vegetation 
is  thoroughly  rotted.  If  spring  plowing  is  made  compact,  it  is  safe  to 
plant  to  barley,  but  if  too  loose  and  the  weather  is  dry,  the  crop  will 
suffer  as  any  other  cereal  would. 

Experiments  show  that  barley  sown  on  disced  corn  land  does  not  yield 
as  well  as  when  sown  on  land  plowed  in  the  fall.  If,  however,  the  land 
was  plowed  deep  for  corn  and  thoroughly  disced  before  seeding,  a  very 
good  crop  can  be  secured. 

Rotation 

Barley  should  be  sown  in  a  rotation  following  corn,  wheat,  flax  or  root 
crops.  The  rotation  should  include  clover  or  some  other  legume  if  pos- 
sible. Barley  should  follow  wheat  rather  than  precede  it,  and  barley 
following  flax  does  better,  as  a  rule,  than  wheat  following  flax. 

Seeding 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  drilling  is  far  preferable  to  broadcast 
sowing.  Reports  of  the  amount  of  seed  to  sow  per  acre  differ  somewhat, 
but  it  is  generally  conceded  that  six  pecks  give  the  best  results.  The 
average  in  Nebraska  for  a  period  of  four  years  is  as  follows : 

2  pecks  yielded  17.0  bushels. 
4  pecks  yielded  21 .4  bushels. 
6  pecks  yielded  24.4  bushels. 
8  pecks  yielded  22.7  bushels. 

120 


In  Montana 

2  pecks  yielded  47.3  bushels. 
4  pecks  yielded  62  . 1  bushels. 
6  pecks  yielded  70  . 1  bushels. 

Any  amount  above  six  pecks  did  not  prove  economical. 

The  following  statement  made  in  Wisconsin  Bulletin  No.  212  is  cer- 
tainly worthy  of  the  farmer's  attention,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  yield  of  barley  is  more  than  25  per  cent  greater  than  wheat. 

It  is  also  well  to  remember  that  barley  ripens  earlier  than  weeds  and 
is  more  desirable  than  any  of  the  other  cereals  as  a  nurse  crop  for  clover 
and  grasses. 

"The  classes  of  barley  which  have  proved  the  best  yielders  in  Wiscon- 
sin have  been  six-rowed  bearded  varieties,  known  as  Oderbrucker, 
Manshury,  Silver  King  and  Golden  Queen.  The  new  Wisconsin  pedi- 
greed varieties  have  demonstrated  their  superior  value  by  returning 
higher  average  yields  than  the  other  sorts. 

"Barley  as  a  cash  crop  deserves  careful  attention.  If  one  variety  of 
recognized  value  is  grown  and  care  taken  that  varieties  are  not  mixed, 
the  crop  will  be  more  valuable  on  the  market,  since  the  maltsters  desire 
a  barley  grain  which  will  all  germinate  at  the  same  time. 

"Investigations  show  that  the  majority  of  maltsters  prefer  the  six- 
rowed  bearded  barley.  Statistics  for  the  entire  country  show  that  bar- 
ley is  exceeded  only  by  corn  in  average  yield  and  value  per  acre,  and  in 
digestible  nutrients,  which  represent  its  feeding  value,  it  is  also  second 
only  to  corn." 

Note 

Composition  of  barley: 


Water 

Ash 
Per  Cent 

Crude  Protein 

Carbohydrates 
Per  Cent 

Fat 

Per  Cent 

Fiber        i     N-Free 
P  .r^iv,f     1     Extract 
Percent     |   p^j.  Cent 

Per  Cent 

10.8 

2.5 

12.0 

4.2 

68.7 

1.8 

SPELTZ 

SPELTZ,  which  is  sometimes  called  emmer,  is  a  variety  of  ancient 
wheat.     The  husks  adhere  to  the  kernel  similar  to  barley.     This 
cereal  is  grown  quite  extensively  in  some  of  the  northern  states. 

Speltz  will  thrive  where  other  wheats  will  not  grow.  As  a  drouth- 
resisting  plant,  it  is  almost  equal  to  kaffir  corn.  It  is  used  quite  exten- 
sively as  a  stock  feed.  Some  very  thorough  experiments  regarding  its 
value  as  a  feed  are  given  in  Bulletin  No.  100  issued  by  the  South  Dakota 


Experiment  Station.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  farmers  in  the  north  are 
anxious  to  know  the  value  of  speltz  as  a  stock  feed,  we  here  give  the 
results  of  the  South  Dakota  trials. 

Feeding  Speltz  to  Sheep 

"It  required  5.09  pounds  of  barley  as  compared  to  7.47  pounds  of 
speltz  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain.  In  Bulletin  No.  80,  results  are 
reported  in  feeding  it  to  lambs  as  compared  to  eight  other  different  grain 
rations.  In  this  experiment  it  required  7.2  pounds  when  fed  whole  and 
8.3  pounds  when  ground  as  compared  to  5.3  pounds  of  corn  to  produce 
a  pound  of  gain." 

Feeding  Dairy  Cows 

"It  required  two  pounds  more  of  speltz  to  produce  a  pound  of  butter 
fat  than  it  did  barley  or  corn,  other  conditions  being  equal.  The  cows 
made  a  gain  in  weight  of  eighteen  pounds  per  head  during  the  period. 
They  consumed  one-third  more  of  speltz  per  head  daily  than  did 
the  lots  receiving  barley  or  corn.  Speltz  proved  to  be  a  good  feed  for 
the  dairy  cow." 

Fattening  Range  Lambs 

"Speltz  was  fed  as  a  single  grain,  and  mixed  with  corn,  barley  and 
wheat,  half  and  half  by  weight  to  four  different  lots.  The  record  of  the 
lot  fed  on  speltz  in  this  test  confirms  the  results  obtained  by  feeding  this 
grain  in  former  experiments,  that  it  requires  from  one  to  two  pounds 
more  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  than  with  the  other  grains." 

"The  lot  fed  a  mixture  of  speltz  and  barley,  half  and  half  by  weight, 
made  a  larger  gain  for  feed  consumed  than  the  average  of  the  gain  made 
by  the  two  lots  fed  on  barley  and  speltz.  This  was  also  true  for  lot  nine 
where  corn  was  mixed  with  speltz  in  the  same  proportion  as  above,  but 
with  both  lots  it  required  more  pounds  of  the  mixture  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain  than  it  did  with  either  lots  fed  on  barley  or  corn,  which 
indicates  that  speltz  has  a  greater  feeding  value  for  lambs  when  mixed 
with  other  grains  than  when  fed  alone." 

Feeding  Baby  Beef 

"The  lot  fattened  on  speltz  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.69 
pounds,  while  the  lot  fattened  on  corn  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.84 
pounds. 

"During  the  grass  period,  the  lot  fed  on  speltz  gained  112  pounds  more 
than  did  the  lot  fed  on  corn.  It  required  only  5.16  pounds  of  speltz  for  a 
pound  of  gain,  as  compared  with  7.03  pounds  of  corn  to  produce  a  pound 
of  gain,  during  the  grass  period. 

"The  lot  fed  on  speltz  did  not  consume  as  much  hay  per  pound  of  gain 
as  did  other  lots,  indicating  that  the  husk  of  speltz  is  a  good  substitute 
for  hay. 

122 


"Speltz  produces  a  hard  fat,  about  the  same  as  oats;  and  as  good  a 
quahty  of  meat  as  corn,  as  may  be  seen  by  cut  of  rib  and  loin  on  page  73 
of  Bulletin  No.  100. 

"With  the  exception  of  the  speltz  lot,  the  spayed  heifers  brought  the 
same  price  as  the  steers.  In  this  case  a  reduction  of  fifty  cents  per  hun- 
dred was  made  on  account  of  the  spayed  heifer  being  smaller  than  the 
steers  in  the  lot  which  brought  $6.00  per  hundred. 

"The  lot  of  calves  fattened  on  speltz  sold  for  40  cents  a  hundred  less 
on  the  Chicago  market  than  did  the  lot  fattened  on  corn,  and  dressed 
two  per  cent  less  than  did  the  corn  lot." 


RYE 

THERE  are  two  different  classes  of  rye,  namely,  winter  and  spring. 
The  winter  varieties,  only,  are  grown  to  any  extent  in  the  United 
States.  Rye  is  a  hardy  rustling  crop  and  will  make  a  larger  yield  on 
poor  land  than  any  of  the  cereals. 

Soil 

If  rye  is  grown  on  soil  rich  in  organic  matter  and  nitrogen,  it  is  very 
apt  to  lodge  on  account  of  the  heavy  growth.  If  sown  early  in  the  fall, 
it  makes  a  splendid  winter  pasture.  Excepting  legumes,  it  is  superior  to 
other  crops  for  green  manuring.  While  it  adds  none  of  the  plant  food 
elements  to  the  soil,  if  the  growth  is  plowed  under,  all  of  the  plant  food 
taken  from  the  soil  in  making  the  crop  is  returned.  Its  value  as  a 
manure  crop  is  in  the  organic  matter  it  fm-nishes. 

Uses 

Rye  is  not  only  a  splendid  food  for  man,  but  when  balanced  with  con- 
centrates, it  makes  a  profitable  food  for  hogs  and  cattle. 
The  digestible  nutrients  of  rye  products  are  as  follows: 


Total  Dry 
Matter  in 
100  Lbs. 

Digestible  Nutrients  in 

100  Pounds 

Kind 

Crude 
Protein 

'         Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Rye 

91.3 

9.5 

1          69.4 

1.2 

Rye  Middlings   _  _ 

88.2 

11.0 

1          52.9 

2.6 

Rye  Straw 

92.9 

0.7 

39.6 

1           0.4 

124 


B 


BUCKWHEAT 

UCK WHEAT  is  grown  for  human  food  and  the  flower  is  a  favorite 
with  the  bee  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  honey  it  contains. 

Soil 

Buckwheat  can  be  raised  on  almost  any  type  of  soil  and  in  latitudes 
where  but  few  crops  will  mature. 

It  is  a  hearty  feeder  and  rough  rustler.  Buckwheat  will  make  a  good 
crop  on  land  that  is  apparently  worn  out. 

As  a  green  manure  crop  it  is  excellent.  The  writer  has  sown  it  as  a 
catch  crop  after  an  attempt  to  raise  wheat,  which  failed  on  account  of  an 
anaemic  condition  of  the  soil,  and  by  plowing  the  heavy  growth  of  buck- 
wheat late  in  the  fall,  was  able  to  secure  a  good  crop  of  wheat  the  next 
year.  It  is  very  evident  that  the  crop  plowed  under  improved  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil  and  made  available  dormant  plant  food. 

Seeding 

Buckwheat  can  be  sown  broadcast  or  drilled.  The  usual  amount  to 
sow  is  from  three  to  four  pecks  per  acre. 

The  digestible  nutrients  in  buckwheat  are  as  follows: 


Total  Dry 

Matter  in 
100  Lbs. 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  100  Pounds 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Buckwheat 

86.6                      8.1 

48.2 

2.4 

KAFFIR  CORN 

T7' AFFIR  corn  is  a  non-saccharine  sorghum.  While  it  can  be  grown 
J-^  in  any  latitude  or  in  any  soil  that  will  produce  Indian  corn,  it  is 
also  especially  adapted  to  semi-arid  regions.  It  is  manifestly  a  drouth 
and  hot  wind  resisting  plant.  During  an  extremely  dry  spell  it  may 
become  dry  and  apparently  dead,  but  will  revive  after  a  rain. 

Kaffir  corn  is  a  carbohydrate  the  same  as  Indian  corn  and  its  feed- 
ing value  is  very  nearly  equal  to  Indian  corn.  The  results  of  a  number 
of  analyses  show  that  the  protein  and  carbohydrates  in  Kaffir  corn 
are  slightly  higher  and  the  fat  somewhat  lower  in  per  cent  than  in 
Indian   corn. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  ten  bushels  of  Kaffir  corn  have  approximately 
the  same  feeding  value  as  nine  bushels  of  Indian  corn. 

Kaffir  corn  is  a  great  safe-guard  in  semi-arid  regions  and  high  alti- 
tudes where  Indian  corn  cannot  be  successfully  grown.  When  fed  with 
alfalfa  in  the  right  proportion,  it  makes  a  splendid  ration  for  live-stock. 

125 


For  poultry  feed  it  is  equal,  and  by  some  regarded  as  being  superior, 
to  Indian  corn.  When  fed  to  stock  the  best  results  are  obtained  by 
making  it  into  a  meal.  In  feeding  poultry,  however,  it  does  better 
when  the  grains  are  fed  whole. 

The  farmer  must  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  in  order  to  get  the  best 
results  from  KafRr  corn  it  must  be  fed  with  feeds  containing  protein. 

Planting 

KafRr  corn  can  be  planted  in  hills,  drilled  with  an  ordinary  corn 
planter,  with  a  grain  drill  or  sown  broadcast.  When  planted  for  seed 
it  is  better  to  plant  four  or  five  grains  in  a  hill  three  feet  apart;  if  for 
a  soiling  crop  it  should  be  sown  broadcast  or  drilled  with  a  grain  drill. 
In  dry  sections  it  is  advisable  to  use  the  hster  in  planting.  The 
seed  should  not  be  planted  until  the  ground  is  warm,  if  placed  in  cold 
damp  ground,  it  will  rot. 


MILO  MAIZE 


MILO  maize,  like  Kaffir  corn  is   a  non-saccharine  sorghum.     In 
appearance,  nutritive  value  and  habits,  it  is  very  similar  to  Kaffir 
corn.     By  some  it  is  regarded  as  being  even  more  drouth  resisting. 

Feeding  Value 

H.  M.  Cottrell  states  that  a  bushel  of  Milo  maize  will  make  ten  or 
eleven  pounds  of  pork,  or,  in  other  words,  the  farmer  can  make  four  hun- 
dred or  more  pounds  of  pork  from  one  acre  of  Milo.  He  states  that  it 
is  a  never  failing  crop  in  the  Pan  Handle  of  Texas  and  that  it  will  yield 
twenty  or  more  bushels  per  acre  in  sections  where  it  is  so  dry  that  wheat 
is  an  absolute  failure  and  corn  cannot  be  grown.  He  recommends  it 
very  highly  for  horses  and  advises  that  it  be  fedunthreshed,  or,  in  other 
words,  feeding  the  entire  cured  plant.  He  suggests  that  if  the  seeds  are 
fed  shelled  that  many  of  them  are  swallowed  whole  and  will  pass 
through  the  horse  undigested,  but  if  fed  in  the  head  the  grains  will  be 
thoroughly  masticated.  It  is  recommended  very  highly  for  fattening 
cattle.  It  should  first  be  fed  in  the  shock,  later  in  the  head,  and  the 
cattle  finished  off  with  the  ground  meal.  It  makes  an  excellent  dairy 
feed  and  should  be  fed  in  the  head  insuring  thorough  mastication. 
When  Milo  maize  meal  is  fed  to  calves  with  skim  milk,  they  make  a 
very  rapid  gain.  In  feeding  this  grain  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  best  results  will  be  obtained  when  fed  with  alfalfa  or  some  feed 
containing  a  large  amount  of  protein. 

Planting 

The  same  rules  governing  Kaffir  corn  will  apply  to  Milo  maize. 

126 


FLAX 

FLAX  is  grown  for  seed  quite  extensively  in  some  of  the  north- 
western states.  The  greatest  amount  is  produced  in  Minnesota, 
North  and  South  Dakota  and  Montana.  In  some  sections  it  is 
grown  in  a  hmited  way  for  seed  and  fiber.  Where  it  is  grown  for  both 
products  and  intensive  methods  are  pursued,  the  crop  is  very  valuable. 

Soil 

Flax  can  be  grown  in  any  soil  or  climate  where  the  cereals  flourish. 
The  best  results,  however,  are  obtained  on  rich  deep  loam. 

Seed-Bed 

Flax  requires  a  deep,  thoroughly  pulverized  and  aerated  seed-bed. 
It  does  not  do  well  on  low  wet  lands  nor  on  heavy  slippery  clays.  It, 
like  the  cereals,  is  improved  by  careful  seed  selection  and  by  fertiliza- 
tion. 

The  seed-bed  for  flax  should  be  thoroughly  pulverized,  made  compact 
and  as  nearly  even  as  possible.  The  reason  for  this  is  to  insure  a  uni- 
form growth  and  ripening.  After  the  seed-bed  has  been  thoroughly 
pulverized,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  run  a  corrugated  roller  over  the  ground 
for  the  purpose  of  breaking  up  all  surface  lumps  and  making  small 
grooves  for  the  seed.  The  best  implement  for  sowing  seed  is  a  flat 
tooth  weeder  with  a  seeder  attachment.  Some  farmers  use  a  shoe  or 
press  drill,  running  the  drill  not  more  than  one-half  inch  in  depth.  If 
the  ground  has  been  prepared  with  the  corrugated  roller  before  the 
seed  is  sown,  the  flat  weeder  teeth  cover  the  seed  very  nicely.  It  is 
not  advisable  to  plant  the  seed  too  deeply. 

Amount  to  Sow 

The  usual  amount  to  sow  is  about  one  bushel  per  acre.  Some  flax 
growers  have  received  the  best  results  where  they  have  sown  but  a 
half  bushel.  They  claim  the  stalks  are  larger,  have  more  branches, 
and  the  seeds  are  larger  and  of  a  better  quality.  If  sown  thick,  the 
stems  are  straight  and  slender  and  the  amount  of  seed  is  less. 

Rotation 

Flax  should  be  grown  in  a  five-year  rotation,  including  in  the  rotation 
one  of  the  legumes.  It  should  never  succeed  itself  nor  be  grown  on  the 
same  land  more  often  than  once  every  five  years. 


127 


Seed  Selection 

Unless  great  care  is  taken  in  selecting  seed,  the  flax  roots  are  apt  to 
be  afflicted  with  a  wilt,  a  disease  which  is  poisonous  to  a  succeeding 
crop  of  flax. 

Professor  Bolley  of  North  Dakota  Agricultural  College,  who  is  an 
authority  on  flaji,  has  the  following  to  say  regarding  it: 

"The  constantly  increasing  demand  for  flax  seed  for  commercial 
use,  year  by  year,  increases  the  value  of  the  crop  as  a  farm  rotation. 
Flax  is  not  'hard'  on  the  land.  The  crop,  however,  demands  an  espe- 
cial care  in  handling. 

"Select  a  good  strain  or  variety.  Select  only  bright,  plump,  disease- 
free  seed.     Grade  to  remove  chaff,  straw  and  light-weight  seeds." 

"Do  not  sow  flax  vOn  the  same  land  more  than  once  in  four  or  five 
years. 

"All  flax  seed  shoul^  be  treated  before  sowing  to  prevent  wilt.  Use 
one  pound  of  formaldehyde  to  each  forty  gallons  of  water,  and  a 
half  gallon  of  this  solution  for  each  bushel  of  dry  seed.  Use  a  sprayer 
that  throws  a  fine,  misty  spray.. 

"Plow  as  deep  as  possible,  then  pack  the  soil  firmly  in  any  manner 
that  you  can,  but  do  not  puddle  the  land  while  it  is  wet.  Make 
the  seed  bed  so  firm  and  smooth  that  the  discs  of  the  drill  will  not  cut 
deeper  than  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  Use  rollers  and 
stone-boats  for  packing. 

"Drill  at  earliest  date  possible  and  yet  avoid  last  real  freeze.  Late 
seeding  often  brings  good  results,  but  the  crop  is  liable  to  be  caught  by 
fall  rains  and  frosts.  Frost  in  the  spring  does  less  damage  than  in 
the  fall.     Sow  from  ten  to  twelve  quarts  of  seed  per  acre. 

"Cut  with  a  binder  wherever  possible.  Thresh  as  soon  as  dry  or 
stack  when  dry.  Select  your  seed  from  your  most  mature  crop.  Home- 
grown seed  is  best." 


RICE 

WE  fully  appreciate  the  fact  that  rice  culture  belongs  to  the  special- 
ists, and  that  a  full  and  comprehensive  description  of  all  of  the 
many  requirements  of  the  plant  under  a  variety  of  conditions  and  loca- 
tions is  impossible  in  this  book;  hence,  we  will  mention  only  a  few  of  the 
many  operations  for  the  purpose  of  discouraging  the  novice  from  reck- 
lessly plunging  into  rice  growing  rather  than  to  instruct  the  planter  who 
has  made  it  a  profession. 

128 


Rice,  culture  is  carried  on  in  the  United  States  only  in  the  south,  and  is 
limited  to  the  south  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states  excepting  Arkansas,  and 
California,  where  some  is  being  grown.  The  production  annually 
amounts  to  23,000,000  bushels  of  rough  rice,  the  amount  being  a  little 
less  than  our  consumption. 

While  rice  is  chiefly  grown  on  larjds  that  are  low  and  easily  irrigated, 
there  are  varieties  which  can  be  grown  on  fertile  uplands  without  irriga- 
tion. 

Soils 

The  best  soil  for  rice  is  a  medium  clay  loam.  In  Louisiana  where  rice 
is  grown  more  extensively  than  in  any  other  state,  the  best  yields  are 
produced  on  a  stiff,  buckshot  clay  underlain  by  a  semi-impervious  sub- 
soil. Gravelly  or  sandy  soil  is  not  adapted  to  rice  culture  unless  the 
light  soil  is  underlain  with  a  firm  clay  subsoil.  Rice  is  successfully 
grown  on  delta  lands,' inland  marches  which  can  be  drained,  and  on  rich 
level  prairie  lands  which  can  be  irrigated.  Upland  rice  can  be  grown 
quite  successfully  on  any  soil  adapted  to  wheat  or  cotton,  provided 
climatic  conditions  are  favorable. 

Seed-Bed 

While  shallow  plowing  is  advocated  by  some  rice  growers  (they 
believing  it  insures  a  compact  seed-bed),  it  has  been  demonstrated  con- 
clusively that  a  deep  seed-bed  made  so  by  plowing  deep,  gives  the  best 
results.  Rice  roots  rarely  grow  deeper  than  the  plow  sole;  hence,  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  plant  would  have  more  accessible  food 
in  a  deep  bed  than  in  a  shallow  one.  If  the  ground  is  too  loose,  it 
should  be  packed  before  the  rice  is  sown,  or  if  lumps  exist,  a  heavy  roller 
should  be  used.  A  roller  not  only  pulverizes  lumps,  but  it  packs  the 
soil  and  assists  in  conserving  moisture. 

Drainage 

Perfect  drainage  is  very  essential  to  rice  culture  for  the  following 
reasons: 

1.  Alkali  salts  are  carried  away  through  the  drain  tile.  If  these 
salts  are  allowed  to  accumulate,  the  soil  will  soon  become  barren. 

2.  Drainage  at  harvest  time  is  very  necessary.  If  the  water  cannot 
be  removed  rapidly  when  the  grain  is  ripe,  much  of  it  is  lost,  due  to  the 
delay  in  harvesting.  If  water  can  not  be  drained  off  rapidly,  harvesting 
by  hand  is  necessary,  an  operation  which  is  very  expensive. 

3.  If  the  land  remains  wet  after  harvesting,  water  grasses  will  grow 
very  rapidly,  but  if  the  land  can  be  drained  thoroughly,  a  legume  of 
some  kind  can  be  planted.  Any  legume  is  profitable  as  a  crop  and  very 
beneficial  to  the  soil  for  the  reason  that  it  supplies  nitrogen  and  humus, 
and,  in  a  measure,  prevents  water  gi-asses  and  weeds  from  gi'owing. 

129 


Seeding 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  sow  seed  that  is  free  from  red  rice,  grass 
and  weed  seeds.  The  seed  should  be  uniform  in  quality  and  size  of 
kernel,  well  filled,  flinty  and  free  from  sun  cracks. 

Knapp  says:  "Uniformity  of  kernel  is  more  essential  in  rice  than  in 
any  other  cereal  because  of  the  polishing  process." 

The  amount  of  seed  to  sow  varies  in  different  sections,  and  with  differ- 
ent methods  of  sowing.  One  to  three  bushels  per  acre  is  the  usual 
amount  to  sow. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  says  that  "rice  should 
always  be  planted  with  a  drill  and  not  sown  broadcast.  The  seed-bed 
should  be  well  prepared  and  a  roller  should  precede  in  order  to  crush  all 
lumps  and  make  the  seed-bed  compact.  Horses  should  not  tread  the 
ground  after  the  grain  has  been  sown,  for  the  reason  that  much  of  it  will 
be  punched  into  the  deep  soil,  causing  an  uneven  growth  and  ripening." 

Flooding 

Rice  should  not  be  flooded  until  it  is  eight  or  ten  inches  high  unless 
more  moisture  is  required  to  germinate  and  produce  early  growth  than  is 
furnished  by  rains.  If  early  irrigation  is  necessary,  it  should  be  only 
sufficient  to  moisten  the  ground.  Flooding  water  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  become  stagnant,  for  such  water  promotes  the  growth  of 
injurious  plants. 

Fertility 

If  the  straw  and  chaff  are  returned  to  the  land  and  the  irrigating  water 
is  from  a  river,  the  soil  will  not  become  depleted  of  its  fertility.  River 
water  usually  carries  with  it  large  quantities  of  organic  matter  contain- 
ing all  of  the  plant  food  elements,  but  pure  brook  or  spring  water  does 
not. 

Rice,  like  other  crops,  requires  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
Continued  cropping  will  finally  reduce  the  amount  in  the  soil  to  the 
point  where  the  crop  will  not  be  profitable;  hence,  it  must  be  replenished 
in  some  way.  Legumes  as  a  catch  crop  will  furnish  nitrogen,  and  leaf 
mould,  ashes  and  yard  manures  will  furnish  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
If  these  substances  can  not  be  secured,  acid  phosphate  and  kainit  should 
be  applied,  or  the  same  elements  in  some  other  form.  In  China  and 
Japan,  King  says,  remarkable  crops  are  produced  by  fertilizing  with 
straw,  leaves,  leaf  and  wood  mould,  sediment  from  ditches  and  ponds, 
and  night  soils. 

Harvesting 

The  mode  of  harvesting  depends  upon  conditions.  When  the  water 
can  be  drained  off  rapidly,  the  binder  is  used  as  it  is  in  harvesting  grain, 
but  if  the  water  cannot  be  drained  off  or  the  land  is  soggy,  it  then 
becomes  necessary  to  use  the  hand  sickle.     After  the  grain  is  cut,  great 

130 


care  must  be  taken  in  shocking  to  protect  the  grain  from  the  heat  of  the 
sun  and  storms. 

Uses 

Rice  contains  about  88  per  cent  of  nutrients.  It  is  probably  more 
easily  digested  than  any  of  the  cereals.  The  proportions  of  protein  to 
carbohydrates  is  1  to  10, 

By-Products 

Rice  bran,  hulls  and  polish  are  rich  in  protein,  fat  and  carbohydrates. 
They  have  a  stock-feeding  value  equal  to  the  by-products  of  wheat. 
Rice  straw  is  equal  to  good  prairie  hay  for  stock.  It  contains  4,7  per 
cent  of  crude  protein,  32  per  cent  of  carbohydrates  and  about  2  per  cent 
of  fats. 


POTATOES 


POTATOES  are  probably  more  universally  used  by  mankind  for  food 
than  any  product  of  the  soil.  Some  years,  when  the  yield  is  unusu- 
ally large,  they  command  a  low  price  on  the  market,  but  the  average 
price  for  a  series  of  years  gives  the  farmer  a  greater  net  return  than  any 
other  field  crop.  The  yield  per  acre  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
amount  of  moisture,  the  character  of  the  seed  and  the  care  given  to 
the  growing  plant. 

Soil 

The  ideal  potato  soil  is  a  deep,  sandy  loam,  rich  in  active  humus.  If 
the  farmer  does  not  have  such  a  soil,  he  can  attain  a  fair  degree  of  suc- 
cess on  almost  any  type  if  he  will  give  the  soil  the  right  kind  of  treat- 
ment. 

Heavy  clay  soils  are  made  mellow  and  friable  by  adding  an  abundance 
of  humus,  either  in  the  form  of  barnyard  manures,  or  by  plowing  under  a 
green  crop,  preferably  cow  peas,  soy  beans,  clover  or  alfalfa.  It  is 
always  best  to  plow  the  ground  intended  for  potatoes  in  the  early  fall  in 
order  that  the  organic  matter  turned  under  will  be  thoroughly  decayed 
in  the  spring.     Clay  soils  are  also  improved  by  adding  lime. 

Sandy  soils  require  humus  and  lime.  Lime  tends  to  improve  the 
mechanical  condition  by  making  it  more  compact  and  humus  furnishes 
plant  food  and  is  of  material  assistance  in  maintaining  moisture. 

Wet  lands  should  be  thoroughly  drained,  first,  to  carry  off  surplus 
water;  second,  to  admit  atmospheric  oxygen,  and,  third,  to  admit 
warmth. 

Soils  which  are  inclined  to  puddle  easily  are  very  undesirable  for  pota- 
toes on  account  of  their  extreme  hardness  after  rains.  The  tendency  to 
pack,  however,  can,  in  a  measure,  be  overcome  by  the  free  use  of  organic 
matter. 

131 


Depth  to  Plow 

The  seed-bed  should  be  deep;  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  plow  the 
ground  to  a  depth  of  eight  or  nine  inches.  If  the  soil  is  sandy,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  plow  so  deep,  or  if  the  subsoil  is  gravel,  deep  plowing  is  not 
advisable. 

The  object  of  a  deep  seed-bed  is  to  give  the  roots  an  opportunity  to 
easily  penetrate  below  the  line  where  the  tubers  form,  which  is  usually 
not  more  than  four  inches  below  the  surface.  If  the  seed-bed  is  only 
four  or  five  inches  deep  and  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  is  inclined  to  be 
hard,  the  roots,  seeking  the  course  of  least  resistance,  will  spread  outward 
instead  of  downward,  and  in  case  of  drouth,  the  plant  suffers,  and  if  deep 
cultivation  is  practiced,  the  roots  are  apt  to  be  pruned.  If,  however, 
the  ground  is  plowed  deep  and  is  subsequently  made  loose  and  mellow  by 
discing,  the  roots  take  the  downward  course,  and  when  they  reach  the 
bottom  of  the  seed-bed,  they  have  stability  to  penetrate  into  the  deeper 
subsoils  where  they  usually  secure  an  abundance  of  moisture. 

If  a  hard-pan  exists  which  is  so  compact  that  water  cannot  percolate 
into  the  deeper  subsoils,  it  is  advisable  to  use  the  subsoil  plow,  which 
simply  cuts  a  gash,  admitting  air  and  moisture  into  the  deeper  subsoils 
which  tend  to  mellow  the  hard-pan.  It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to 
use  the  subsoil  plow  oftener  than  once  in  four  or  five  years. 

In  order  to  secure  the  best  results,  the  ground  should  be  thoroughly 
disced  before  plowing,  in  order  to  secure  a  compact  contact  between  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow  and  the  seed-bed,  to  mix  thoroughly  throughout 
the  seed-bed  any  trash  that  may  be  on  the  surface,  and  to  pulverize  all 
lumps. 

Depth  to  Plant 

The  depth  to  plant  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  seed-bed,  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  the  probable  supply  of  moisture. 

In  heavy,  wet  lands  where  rains  are  frequent,  the  potatoes  should  not 
be  planted  more  than  three  or  three  and  one-half  inches  in  depth,  but 
if  the  soil  is  light,  it  is  necessary  to  plant  them  deeper.  In  semi-arid 
regions,  potatoes  should  be  planted  deeper  than  in  humid  sections. 
Extensive  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  potatoes  planted  four 
inches  deep  in  average  soils  with  an  average  rainfall  made  a  yield  four 
and  one-half  per  cent  greater  than  those  planted  to  a  less  depth,  and 
eight  per  cent  more  than  those  planted  in  a  greater  depth.  It  has  been 
demonstrated,  however,  that  potatoes  planted  deep  gave  the  best 
quality  and  the  largest  per  cent  of  merchantable  potatoes. 

Fertilizers 

An  acre  of  potatoes  consumes  from  seventy  to  eighty  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  from  eighty  to  one 
hundred  pounds  of  potassium.     The  crop  also  requires  from  five  hun- 


dred  to  five  hundred  and  fifty  tons  of  water.  Light,  sandy  soil  requires 
more  water  than  heavier  soils  rich  in  humus.  If  the  plant  food  elements 
do  not  exist  in  the  soil  in  abundance,  they  should  be  furnished  in  some 
economical  way. 

Nitrogen,  which  is  the  most  expensive,  can  be  furnished  by  planting 
some  of  the  legumes,  either  clover,  alfalfa,  cow  peas,  soy  beans  or  vetch. 
The  best  yield  of  potatoes  is  made  on  land  which  has  been  cropped  to 
clover  and  the  crop  turned  under  the  previous  fall.  Cow  peas  and  soy 
beans  can  usually  be  grown  in  any  section  of  the  country. 

Phosphorus  can  be  furnished  by  applying  barnyard  manure.  Ten 
tons  of  barnyard  manure  applied  to  an  acre  places  in  the  ground  an 
abundance  of  this  useful  element.  The  manure  also  tends  to  make 
available  phosphorus  which  may  exist  in  disintegrated  particles  of  rock, 
the  inorganic  substance  of  the  soil.  It  is  never  advisable,  however,  to 
apply  barnyard  manure  to  ground  the  year  it  is  to  be  planted  to  pota- 
toes. It  should  be  applied  the  previous  year;  otherwise,  scabby  and 
diseased  potatoes  may  result. 

Potatoes  require  a  large  amount  of  potassium,  and  if  it  does  not  exist 
in  sufficient  quantities,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  it  in  the  commercial 
form.  Many  potato  growers  find  it  very  profitable  to  apply  a  com- 
plete fertilizer  containing  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium  in  such 
quantities  as  may  be  indicated  by  a  chemical  analysis  of  the  soil. 

Peaty  lands  are  always  deficient  in  potassium ;  hence,  it  is  useless  to 
attempt  to  gi'ow  potatoes  on  such  land  without  adding  potassium  in 
some  form.  While  it  is  customary,  and  good  results  are  gained  by 
applying  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  hill  when  the  potato  is  planted, 
the  better  plan  is,  in  order  to  have  the  entire  seed-bed  brought  to  a  high 
state  of  fertility,  to  apply  a  mixture  to  the  entire  surface  and  thoroughly 
disc  it  in.  It  is  not  advisable  to  apply  the  fertilizer  directly  on  the 
potato.  Where  the  mixture  is  applied  throughout  the  entire  seed-bed, 
the  potatoes  are  more  uniform  in  size,  and  the  following  crop,  whatever 
it  may  be,  will  secure  the  benefit  of  the  fertility  not  utilized  by  the 
potatoes. 

Cultivation 

The  seed-bed  should  be  deep,  mellow  and  free  from  lumps.  It  should 
be  thoroughly  double-disced  before  the  seed  is  planted  and  made  com- 
pact by  using  a  roller  or  packer.  After  the  seed  is  placed  in  the  ground, 
the  land  should  be  harrowed,  using  a  spike-tooth  harrow  or  a  flat- tooth 
weeder  until  the  tops  are  well  out  of  the  ground.  Subsequent  cultiva- 
tion should  be  shallow. 

Ridging  or  hilling  potatoes  should  never  be  practiced,  unless  there  is 
danger  of  water  accumulating  on  the  surface;  in  other  words,  only  where 
surface  drainage  is  absolutely  necessary  is  hilling  desirable.  Deep 
cultivation  tends  to  dry  out  the  seed-bed  and  to  prune  roots  which  is 

133 


sure  to  lessen  the  crop.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  surface  cultivate  often 
enough  to  maintain  a  mulch  to  prevent  the  escape  of  moisture  until  the 
ground  is  thoroughly  covered  with  the  tops.  A  straw  mulch  or  well- 
rotted  manure  can  be  applied  between  the  rows,  after  one  or  two  culti- 
vations, to  good  advantage.  The  mulch  not  only  prevents  the  escape 
of  moisture,  but  it  enriches  the  soil  and  prevents  the  hills  from  cracking, 
thereby  exposing  potatoes  which  have  grown  near  the  surface. 

Seed 

Potatoes  for  seed  should  be  regular  in  form,  medium  in  size  and  free 
from  diseases.  It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  plant  small  shriveled  seed  or 
tubers  which  are  not  marketable.  While  it  is  conceded  that  potatoes 
yield  best  if  slightly  sprouted,  it  has  also  been  demonstrated  that  if 
potatoes  are  well  sprouted  and  the  sprouts  are  removed  or  destroyed  in 
the  act  of  planting,  that  the  yield  is  decreased  from  thirty  to  fifty  per 
cent.  It  has  also  been  demonstrated  that  tubers  sprouted  in  the  light 
grow  rapidly  and  give  better  results  than  when  sprouted  in  a  dark  bin. 
A  better  plan  is  to  plant  when  the  sprouts  are  just  starting.  If  the 
sprout  has  become  long  and  is  then  removed,  which  of  necessity  it 
usually  is,  a  great  part  of  the  vitality  of  the  potato  is  gone,  and  the  sec- 
ond sprouts  will  be  slow  and  the  growth  anaemic. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  how  the  potato  should  be  cut.  In  considering 
this  question,  the  price  of  seed  and  the  value  of  the  farmer's  time  should 
be  taken  into  account.  While  a  potato  cut  into  single  eye  pieces  and 
each  eye  planted  separately  will  yield  more  potatoes  than  it  would  had 
the  potato  been  planted  whole,  the  aggregate  weight  is  not  enough 
greater  to  pay  for  the  extra  labor  of  cutting  and  the  number  of  mer- 
chantable potatoes  is  less.  The  best  results  have  been  obtained  by 
cutting  a  medium-sized  potato  into  two  or  three  pieces  and  planting  one 
piece  in  each  hill.  In  cutting,  care  should  be  taken  to  secure  two  or 
three  good  eyes  in  each  piece. 

The  results  given  by  the  Ohio  State  Experimental  Station  coincides 
with  hundreds  of  other  experiments  which  have  been  made.  The  Ohio 
experiments  were  as  follows: 


Bushels  Per  Acre 
Planted 

Bushels  Per  Acre  Yield 

Size  of  Seed 

Marketable 

Unmarketable 

One  Eye 

10. 

164.2 

25.1 

Two  Eyes 

15. 

204'.  3 

25.1 

Half  Potatoes 

25. 

217.1 

35.7 

Whole  Potatoes           ^    ^  ^ 

40. 

223. 

51.8 

Small  Potatoes 

22.6 

145.2 

48.2 

Diseases 

Primarily,  we  should  know  something  of  the  potato  plant.  It  con- 
sists of  foliage,  stems  and  underground  roots  and  stems.  The  roots 
usually  grow  deep,  if  the  seed-bed  is  made  right,  and  secure  the  moisture 
and  part  of  the  plant  food  which  goes  to  make  up  the  top  as  well  as  the 
tuber.  The  foliage  secures  a  part  of  the  plant  food  from  the  air.  The 
leaves  are  the  lungs  of  the  plant.  These  little  delicate  lungs  breathe  in 
the  carbon  dioxide;  hence,  it  is  plain  that  in  order  to  secure  a  rapid  and 
healthy  growth  and  to  provide  the  plant  both  above  and  below  ground 
with  an  abundance  of  the  elements  from  the  atmosphere,  the  leaves 
should  be  strong  and  healthy.  If  because  of  any  reason  they  are  dis- 
eased or  infested  with  insects,  or  if  because  the  soil  does  not  contain  a 
sufficient  amount  of  nitrogen,  the  stems  and  leaves  are  diminutive  and 
unhealthy,  the  entire  plant  suffers  as  a  result;  hence,  the  farmer  should 
guard  against  this  contingency  by  first  furnishing  an  abundance  of 
nitrogen,  and,  second,  treating  the  foliage  with  the  right  kind  of  spray. 
Probably  the  best  material  for  diseased  leaves  and  tops  is  Bordeaux 
mixture,  which  is  made  as  follows: 

Copper  Sulphate    (Blue  Vitriol) 4  pounds 

Fresh  Lime 5        " 

Water 50  Gallons 

When  this  mixture  is  used  thoroughly  and  as  often  as  conditions 
demand,  the  yield  is  always  increased  and  often  doubled. 

Scab,  rot  and  other  diseases  of  potatoes  are  best  prevented  by  soaking 
the  seed  for  two  hours  in  a  solution  of  formaline,  one  pound  to  thirty 
gallons  of  water.  Place  the  potatoes  in  a  gunny  sack  and  suspend  in 
the  solution.  If  they  are  not  planted  at  once,  they  should  be  spread  out 
to  dry.  If  left  in  the  sacks  or  placed  in  a  pile  while  wet  they  are  apt  to 
heat  and  lose  their  germinating  power.  It  is  of  little  use,  however,  to 
treat  potatoes  and  then  plant  them  in  diseased  soil.  It  is  known  that 
germs  of  potato  diseases  will  remain  in  the  soil  five  or  six  years.  In  this 
connection  it  should  be  known  that  after  a  potato  is  cut,  the  sooner  it  is 
planted,  the  better.  If  permitted  to  lie  for  a  day  or  two,  or  even  a  num- 
ber of  hours,  germination  will  be  extremely  slow,  for  the  reason  that  a 
part  of  the  vitality  is  wasted  through  the  process  of  drying. 

Planting 

Potatoes  should  not  be  planted  until  the  soil  is  warm  and  all  danger  of 
frost  is  past.  If  they  are  placed  in  cold,  damp  ground,  they  are  very 
apt  to  rot.  If  the  ground  is  rich  in  humus  and  warm,  germination  takes 
place  rapidly  and  the  initial  growth  is  strong. 

Method  of  Planting 

The  potato  planter  gives  by  far  the  best  results.     The  depth  is  uni- 


form  and  the  potato  is  usually  planted  in  moist  soil  and  immediately 
covered  by  the  automatic  appliance  on  the  planter.  If  planted  in  a 
trench  and  covered  by  a  plow  furrow  or  with  a  hoe,  the  seed  is  apt  to 
have  a  top  covering  of  dry  dirt. 

Harvesting 

The  potatoes  should  not  be  harvested  until  they  are  thoroughly 
matured,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  best  to  leave  them  in  the  ground 
until  there  is  danger  of  freezing. 


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The  Most  Economical  and  Easiest  Method  of  Harvesting  Potatoes 


The  power  potato  digger  possesses  many  features  which  recommend  it 
over  the  fork,  hoe  or  plow.  A  good  digger  can  be  run  to  a  depth  below 
the  tubers,  which  obviates  the  danger  of  cutting  the  potatoes,  and  the 
carrier  sifts  out  tops,  dirt  and  trash  and  leaves  the  potatoes  laying  free 
and  clean  upon  the  surface  where  they  dry  rapidly,  a  matter  to  be  con- 
sidered in  storing. 

Storing 

Potatoes  should  be  stored  in  a  dark,  cool,  well-ventilated  cellar  or 
vault.  The  temperature  should  not  be  below  33  degrees  nor  above  37 
degrees.  The  more  uniform  the  temperature,  the  less  is  the  loss,  in 
what  might  be  termed  evaporation  or  respiration,  which  amounts  in  six 
months  to  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  of  the  tubers. 


THE  SWEET  POTATO 

THE  sweet  potato  is  a  delicious  food  for  man  and^  very  profitable  crop 
for  the  farmer.  If  his  soil  is  adapted  to  sweet  potatoes  and  he  com- 
plies with  the  necessary  requirements,  his  net  profit  from  the  crop  will  be 
•  far  greater  than  from  most  other  farm  crops.  The  tops  or  vines  are 
nearly  as  rich  in  nutrients  as  clover,  alfalfa  or  cow  peas,  making  a  splen- 
did food  for  live-stock.  If  the  vines  are  worked  into  the  seed-bed,  it  is 
improved  both  chemically  and  mechanically. 

In  a  fair  soil  150  bushels  per  acre  is  considered  a  good  crop,  but  in  an 
ideal  soil  and  by  pursuing  intensive  methods,  three  or  four  hundred 
bushels  can  be  raised  on  an  acre.  Sweet  potatoes  usually  command  a 
high  price,  especially  in  the  north.  A  suitable  soil  will  make  from  $100 
to  $200  per  acre. 

Soil 

An  ideal  sweet  potato  soil  is  a  light,  sandy  loam,  rich  in  organic  mat- 
ter, although  a  medium  crop  can  be  raised  on  any  soil  containing  a  fair 
amount  of  sand.  A  very  light  sand  can  be  made  to  yield  an  enormous 
crop  by  mixing  with  the  soil  leaf  mould  or  muck.  Dense  clays,  heavy 
black  muck  or  soggy  land  will  not  produce  good  sweet  potatoes. 

Seed-Bed 

The  seed-bed  should  be  made  deep,  be  thoroughly  pulverized  and 
aerated.  To  secure  a  maximum  yield,  the  farmer  should  select  a  sandy 
piece  of  land,  manure  thoroughly  in  the  spring,  plow  shallow  and  sow  to 
cow  peas  or  soy  beans.  When  the  crop  is  well  advanced,  plow  the 
growth  under,  running  the  plow  about  nine  inches  deep.  If  weeds  grow 
after  the  ground  has  been  plowed,  they  should  be  destroyed  by  discing 
or  harrowing.  The  following  spring  the  ground  should  be  disced  thor- 
oughly after  ft  is  warm  and  plowed  again.  If  wood  ashes  can  be  secured, 
make  an  application  of  400  or  500  pounds  to  each  acre  and  disc  in  thor- 
oughly. If  the  ashes  cannot  be  secured,  apply  250  pounds  each  of 
kainit  and  finely-ground  lime  rock  or  hydrated  lime  to  each  acre  and 
disc  in.  Well-rotted  manure,  leaf  mould  or  muck  are  all  splendid  fer- 
tilizers. 

The  ground  should  now  be  made  into  low,  wide  ridges;  that  is,  the  top 
of  the  ridges  should  be  eight  or  ten  inches  wide.  If  the  soil  is  inclined  to 
be  heavy  and  cold,  splendid  results  are  secured  by  making  a  trench 
eighteen  to  twenty  inches  deep  and  placing  in  the  bottom  three  or  four 
inches  of  well-rotted  horse  manure.  The  trench  should  then  be  filled 
and  rounded  up  and  subsequently  rolled  with  a  heavy  roller  in  order  to 
make  the  soil  and  manure  compact.  It  should  then  be  ridged  and 
immediately  planted.  The  manure  not  only  enriches  the  soil,  but 
warms  it  very  perceptibly,  an  important  matter  in  the  northern  states, 
where  the  nights  are  cold.     The  roots  are  stimulated  to  make  a  rapid, 

137 


deep  growth  by  the  artificial  warmth  produced  by  the  manure.  By 
adopting  this  method,  the  plant  roots  secure  the  benefit  of  the  plant  food 
in  the  manure,  and  the  potatoes  are  not  injured  by  coming  in  direct  con- 
tact with  the  manure. 

Planting 

The  plants  should  be  set  out  when  the  ground  is  warm  and  all  danger 
of  frost  ispast.  When  th  e  plants  are  pulled  from  the  hot  bed,  the  roots 
and  as  m  uch  of  the  stem  as  was  under  the  ground  should  be  laid  in  a 
sappy  mi  xture  of  cow  and  hen  manure  and  leaf  mould.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  use  too  much  hen  manure  in  the  mixture.  The  best  results 
are  obtained  when  one  part  of  hen  manure,  five  parts  of  cow  manure  and 
twenty  parts  of  muck  of  leaf  mould  are  made  in  a  mixture  and  well 
moistened.  They  should  be  placed  in  the  ground  in  a  dripping  condi- 
tion and  the  dirt  well  packed  around  the  root  and  stem.  It  is  not 
advisable  to  set  the  plants  out  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  The  object 
in  using  this  rich  fertilizer  is  to  secure  a  rapid  early  growth,  a  matter  of 
great  importance  for  the  reason  that  most  of  the  substance  of  the  potato 
is  secured  from  the  atmosphere  through  the  leaves;  hence,  the  more 
abundant  and  healthy  the  leaves  are,  the  greater  their  absorbing 
capacity.  If  the  vines  are  delicate  and  the  leaves  are  small  and  sickly 
the  crop  will  be  deficient. 

Cultivation 

Weeds  should  not  be  permitted  to  grow  in  sweet  potatoes  if  the  best 
results  are  to  be  secured ;  hence,  it  is  necessary  to  hoe  and  cultivate  them 
often  enough  to  keep  the  weeds  down  before  the  vines  spread.  Some- 
times it  is  a  good  plan,  just  as  the  vines  are  beginning  to  run,  to  cover 
the  ground  with  a  straw  mulch.  This  mulch  prevents  the  escape  of 
moisture,  and,  in  a  great  measure,  lessens  the  growth  of  weeds. 

Harvesting 

Sweet  potatoes  should  not  be  dug  until  they  are  ripe.  The  farmer 
can  ascertain  by  breaking  one  in  half  or  cutting  it.  After  it  is  broken, 
or  cut,  if  the  potato  does  not  ooze  much  fluid  and  remains  the  same  color, 
it  is  ripe  and  ready  to  dig,  but  if  it  turns  a  yellowish  or  blackish  color,  it 
is  still  green.  While  a  light  frost  is  not  detrimental,  if  the  vines  are  per- 
mitted to  freeze,  the  end  of  the  potato  will  rot  and  have  a  bitter  taste. 

When  the  potatoes  are  ready  to  dig,  an  ordinary  walking  plow  should 
be  run  an  inch  or  two  deep  between  the  rows  to  gather  the  vines  so  that 
they  can  be  cut  off  with  a  sharp  hoe.  After  the  tops  have  been  removed, 
the  potatoes  can  be  dug  by  using  a  fourteen  or  sixteen-inch  plow,  run- 
ning it  so  that  the  hill  of  potatoes  is  inverted.  The  potatoes  can  now  be 
taken  out,  the  dirt  knocked  off  and  placed  where  they  will  dry.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  bruise  or  cut  them.  Injured  ones  should  not 
be  placed  in  storage,  for  they  will  not  only  rot,  but  spoil  others. 

133 


storing 

Great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  keeping  sweet  potatoes.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  contain  a  great  deal  of  moisture.  If  the  ground 
where  the  potatoes  are  grown  is  thoroughly  drained,  there  is  less  mois- 
ture in  the  potatoes,  the  potatoes  are  harder  and  of  better  flavor,  and 
there  is  less  danger  of  rotting. 

Various  plans  for  keeping  them  are  used.  Probably  the  best  one  is 
to  place  the  potatoes  in  a  dry,  well-ventilated  room  until  they  have 
passed  through  the  sweat  and  are  slightly  wilted;  then  cover  them  in 
layers  with  dry  sand.  Some  have  found  it  practical  to  wrap  each  potato 
in  a  paper  and  place  them  in  barrels  and  store  the  barrels  in  a  dry  room 
having  a  uniform  temperature. 


SUGAR  BEETS 


THE  sugar  beet  industry  has  developed  in  the  United  States  during 
the  past  few  years  until  it  ranks  as  one  of  our  principal  crops.  The 
production  of  sugar  beets  in  1899  was  only  81,729  short  tons.  It 
increased  to  218,406  tons  in  1902,  501,682  tons  in  1909,  and  700,000 
tons  in  1912,  an  increase  of  100,000  tons  over  the  1911  crop.  The  pro- 
duction of  1912  is  about  one-fifth  of  the  national  consumption  of  sugar. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  sugar  beets  can  be  successfully  grown  in  all  of 
the  western  and  northern  states  and  many  of  the  eastern  states,  the  crop 
will  in  a  few  years  be  equal  to  our  consumption,  if  the  law  continues  to 
afford  a  reasonable  protection. 

The  value  of  the  crop  is  not  alone  in  the  sugar  it  contains.  The 
by-products  which  are  utilized  for  stock  is  an  important  item.  A  crop 
of  twelve  tons  per  acre  of  beet  roots,  which  is  about  the  average  pro- 
duction, containing  approximately  22^  per  cent  of  dry  digestible  sub- 
stance, is  accompanied  by  about  9.6  tons  of  fresh  tops  containing  15  per 
cent  of  dry  digestible  substances.  This  furnishes  more  than  four  tons 
of  dry  digestible  substance  per  acre.  The  tops  can  be  fed  either  green, 
dry  or  siloed.  The  roots  in  addition  to  the  pulp  contain  about  12^  per 
cent  of  sugar.  Even  in  localities  where  the  sugar  content  cannot  be 
utilized  as  sugar,  it  will  pay  the  farmer  to  raise  a  few  acres  of  beets  for  his 
live-stock- 
Soils  and  Fertilizers 

Sugar  beets  require  a  deep,  rich,  mellow  loam.  They  are  especially 
adapted  to  alkali  soils  containing  from  one-half  to  one  per  cent  of  the 
alkali  salts.  They  demand  an  abundance  of  potash,  but  not  an  exces- 
sive amount  of  nitrogen.  If  too  much  available  nitrogen  exists  in  the 
soil,  the  plant  is  apt  to  grow  to  tops  and  small  roots.     If  the  soil  is  defi- 

139 


cient  in  potash,  a  high  grade  of  sulphate  of  potash  should  be  used.     If 
the  soil  is  at  all  inclined  to  be  sour,  it  should  be  thoroughly  limed. 

Barnyard  manure  makes  an  excellent  fertilizer,  and,  in  addition  to 
furnishing  plant  food,  it  puts  the  land  in  splendid  physical  condition. 
If  manure  is  applied  in  a  green,  rough  state,  it  should  be  plowed  under 
early  in  the  fall,  giving  it  ample  time  to  rot.  Well-rotted  manure  can 
be  applied  in  the  spring  before  the  ground  is  plowed. 

Seed-Bed 

The  seed-bed  should  be  mellow,  well-ventilated  and  watered.  It 
should  be  as  deep  as  the  roots  will  grow.  If  the  soil  is  compact  and  not 
thoroughly  pulverized  and  the  bed  is  shallow,  the  roots  will  have  a  rough 
irregular  surface,  be  short  and  stunted,  and  the  effect  will  be  reflected 
in  the  composition  of  the  beets. 

Beet  land  should  be  plowed  early  in  the  fall  and  disced  from  time  to 
time  in  order  to  insure  the  destruction  of  weeds.  It  should  again  be 
plowed  in  the  spring  after  it  has  been  thoroughly  disced.  It  should 
then  be  disced  and  harrowed  until  it  is  as  mellow  as  an  onion  bed  before 
the  beets  are  planted.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  a  well-pulverized, 
deep  seed-bed  will  make  a  yield  of  fifty  per  cent  more  than  a  shallow, 
poorly-made  one. 

Irrigation 

In  sections  where  irrigation  is  necessary,  every  means  should  be  used 
to  store  an  abundance  of  water  in  the  deeper  subsoils  before  the  beets 
are  planted,  thereby  avoiding  the  necessity  of  frequent  subsequent  irri- 
gations. If  the  land  is  underlain  with  drain  tile  and  a  subsoiler  is  used  to 
a  depth  of  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  in 
order  to  increase  the  amount  of  stored  water,  and  frequent  surface  culti- 
vations are  made,  the  beets  will  not  only  make  a  more  rapid  growth,  but 
will  contain  a  larger  percentage  of  sugar  than  a  crop  which  is  frequently 
watered.  No  crop  will  respond  to  dry-land  farming  operations  more 
satisfactorily  than  beets  if  care  is  taken  to  store  an  abundance  of  water 
during  the  fall  and  winter  and  after  the  last  plowing  in  the  spring. 

Drainage 

Drainage  is  beneficial  in  three  ways: 

1.  The  texture  of  the  soil  is  improved  and  the  temperature  is  raised. 

2.  Surplus  water  in  the  seed-bed  is  removed  and  the  soil  is  thor- 
oughly aerated. 

3.  Alkali  salts,  in  a  measure,  are  removed. 

Thousands  of  acres  of  land  which  at  one  time  were  ideal  for  sugar 
beets  are  practically  barren  today  because  of  the  presence  of  an  excessive 
amount  of  alkali  which  could  be  removed  by  having  a  system  of  under- 
lain drain  tile. 

140 


Cultivation 

Intensive  cultivation  is  very  necessary. 

1.  To  remove  weeds. 

2.  To  keep  the  ground  mellow. 

3.  To  conserve  moisture. 

To  irrigate  frequently  and  cultivate  at  long  intervals,  usually  means 
a  very  deficient  crop.  The  best  results  are  obtained  if  the  beets  are 
cultivated  often  enough  to  maintain  a  fine  surface  mulch  and  sufficient 
water  stored  early  to  mature  the  crop.  In  arid  regions,  however,  it  is 
impossible  to  store  enough  prior  to  seeding  to  make  a  crop. 

After  the  beet  plants  are  up,  they  should  be  blocked  out  with  a  sharp 
hoe  and  subsequently  thinned,  leaving  one  sturdy  plant  every  eight 
inches. 

Rotation 

By  adopting  a  system  of  rotation,  the  beet  crop  is  not  only  increased, 
but  every  other  crop  grown  on  the  same  land  is  increased.  Experiments 
on  one  hundred  and  fifteen  farms  demonstrated  the  benefits  to  other 
crops  grown  in  rotation  with  beets,  as  is  indicated  in  the  following  tabled 


Average  Yield  Per  Acre 

Crops 

Before 
Beets 

After 
Beets 

43.07 
53.1 
60.6 
59.14 

222^2' 

7.7 

20.26 

Increase 

Actual       '     Per  Cent 

Wheat,  bushels . 

Corn,  bushels  ^          

Oats,  bushels  _           

Barley,  bushels   

Rye,  bushels . 

Potatoes,  bushels 

Hay,  tons 

Beans,  bushels 

28.88 
41.6 
40.9 
38.97 

15i"97 

5.7 
15.66 

14.19                 49.1 
11.5                   27.6 
19.7                   48.1 
20.17                 52.0 

39.0 

70.25                46.2 
2.0                  35,0 
4.6                  29.5 

In  planting  a  rotation,  alfalfa  or  some  legume  should  be  included. 


COTTON 

COTTON  is  the  planter's  main  crop  in  the  south  and  corn  is  the  far- 
mer's mainstay  in  the  north.  Corn  differs  from  cotton,  however, 
in  that  it  can  be  grown  very  successfully  in  the  southern  states.  Cotton 
requires  a  season  at  least  six  months  long  and  a  temperature  ranging 
from  sixty  to  one-hundred  degrees  Fahrenheit.  It  also  requires  an 
abundance  of  moisture  during  the  growing  season  and  fruiting  period, 
and  dry  weather  while  the  bolls  are  openmg  and  during  the  harvesting. 

141 


While  the  season  is  a  material  factor  in  the  production  of  cotton, 

the  production  depends  largely  upon  the  character  of  the  seed-bed, 

the  amount  and  proportions  of  the  fertility  in  the  soil,  the  seed  and 

cultivation. 

The  Seed-Bed 

The  seed-bed  should  be  deep,  thoroughly  pulverized  and  fairly  com- 
pact. While  the  cotton  plant  requires  a  great  deal  of  moisture  during 
the  growing  period,  if  it  exists  in  the  seed-bed  or  in  the  upper  stratum 
of  the  soil  to  such  an  extent  that  the  air  spaces  between  the  particles 
of  soil  are  clogged,  thereby  hindering  the  free  circulation  of  atmos- 
pheric oxygen,  the  plant,  will  either  perish  or  be  deficient.  The  water 
should  be  stored  in  the  deeper  subsoils  and  should  be  carried  to  the 
cotton  roots  by  capillary  attraction.  Cotton  ground  should  be  drained. 
Drain  tile  accomplishes  three  very  important  things. 

1.  They  carry  off  superfluous  water. 

2.  They  admit  atmospheric  oxygen,  an  element  which  is  necessary 
to  maintain  soil  micro-organisms. 

3.  They  influence  the  temperature  of  the  soil. 

It  has  been  fully  demonstrated  that  drained  ground  in  the  south  is 
several  degrees  warmer  in  the  spring  than  undrained  ground.  This  is 
a  matter  of  great  importance  to  the  cotton  grower.  If  he  can  plant 
his  cotton  ten  days  or  two  weeks  earlier  in  the  spring,  he,  in  a  measure, 
defeats  pests  and  his  crop  matures  before  the  early  frosts.  If  the 
ground  is  thoroughly  drained  after  a  heavy  rain  the  surplus  water 
which  cannot  be  stored  in  the  subsoils  will  be  carried  away  thereby 
permitting  the  planter  to  plant  and  cultivate  his  soil,  whereas,  if  he 
is  obliged  to  wait  until  the  water  soaks  into  the  ground  and  the  seed 
bed  dries,  the  weeds  are  apt  to  make  him  a  great  deal  of  additional 
work.  The  writer  has  seen  a  splendid  stand  of  cotton  abandoned  be- 
cause of  a  two  weeks'  growth  of  weeds  and  grass. 

The  seed-bed  should  be  deep  in  order  that  the  plant  roots  will  have 
an  abundance  of  room.  Two  often  a  cotton  crop  will  be  deficient, 
not  because  of  an  unfavorable  season  nor  because  of  a  lack  of  plant 
food  but  because  the  seed-bed  is  not  more  than  three  or  four  inches 
deep  and  a  hard-pan  exists  which  prevents  the  plant  roots  from  pene- 
trating to  the  deeper  subsoils. 

Fertility 

Cotton  requires  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  lime  and  some  of 
the  minor  inorganic  elements.  It  is  not  enough  to  have  an  abundance 
of  any  one  of  the  elements  mentioned  and  a  deficient  amount  of  another, 
but  all  the  elements  must  exist  in  sufficient  quantities  so  that  the  plant 
can  secure  a  full  balanced  ration.  It  is  ridiculous  to  presume  to  pre- 
scribe a  complete  fertilizer  which  will  meet  all  of  the  requirements  of 
cotton  under  all  conditions.     The  planter  should  either  determine  by 


analysis  or  experiment  wliich,  if  any,  of  the  elements  are  deficient  and 
whether  or  not  they  exist  in  the  soil  and  are  not  available.  He  should 
then  supply  them,  either  in  the  form  of  a  complete  commercial  fertilizer 
made  in  the  right  proportions  or  such  amendments  as  may  be  required. 
If  the  proper  course  is  pursued,  cotton  exhausts  the  soil  of  its 
fertility  less  than  any  of  the  staple  crops.  A  190  pound  crop  of 
lint  cotton  Cthis  being  the  average  per  acre  in  the  United  States)  con- 
sumes 40  pounds  of  nitrogen,  15  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  24  pounds 
of  potash.  If  the  roots,  stems,  leaves  and  bolls  are  left  in  the  ground 
and  the  seed  and  lint  taken  away,  all  but  thirteen  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
5|  pounds  of  phosphorus  and  5|  pounds  of  potash  are  restored  to  the 
soil.  If  the  oil  is  taken  from  the  seed  and  the  meal  returned  to  the  soil, 
the  crop  which  made  190  pounds  of  lint  cotton  then  takes  away  the 
small  amount  of  If  poundsof  nitrogen, phosphorusand  potash  combined. 
It  can  be  seen  that  if  the  planter  is  fair  with  his  land,  the  fertility  can 
be  maintained  at  an  expense  of  less  than  12  cents  per  acre.  If  the 
planter  will  utilize  some  of  the  legumes,  he  can  secure  the  nitrogen 
from  the  atmosphere  and  use  his  meal  for  feed.  Or,  if  he  will  feed 
the  cotton  seed  meal  to  live-stock  and  place  the  manure  on  the  ground, 
he  will  return  to  the  soil  eighty  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  used  in  making 
the  crop.  Many  combinations  of  fertilizing  elements  are  recommended, 
and  beyond  question  most  of  them  are  beneficial,  but  in  order  to  secure 
the  best  results  at  the  least  expense  the  planter  should  note  the  needs 
of  his  soil  in  order  that  he  will  not  apply  some  element  which  is  not 
required. 

W.  R.  Perkins  of  the  Mississippi  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
made  some  very  extensive  and  complete  experiments  with  the  various 
fertilizers.  He  applied  on  different  plots,  kainit,  acid  phosphate  and 
cotton  seed  meal  alone.  On  other  plots  he  made  various  combinations. 
On  still  another  plot  he  used  barnyard  manure  alone.  The  best  re- 
sults by  far  were  obtained  from  the  field  fertilized  with  barnyard 
manure  alone.  The  next  best  production  was  where  manure  and  lime 
were  used  and  the  next  where  manure  and  kainit  were  used.  This 
indicates  that  manure  alone  did  best  and  that  the  amendments  were 
greatly  improved  by  mixing  with  barnyard  manures. 

Many  planters  find  it  profitable  to  make  a  compost  using  such 
amounts  of  potash,  phosphorus  and  nitrogen  as  they,  from  investiga- 
tion, may  deem  advisable.  The  Louisiana  Station  recommends  a 
compost  made  of  two  tons  of  acid  phosphate,  one  hundred  bushels  of 
stable  manure,  one  hundred  bushels  of  green  cotton  seed,  applying 
thirty  bushels  of  the  compost  to  an  acre.  The  planter  can  always 
rest  assured  that  barnyard  manure  not  only  contains  a  well-balanced 
formula  of  the  plant  food  elements,  but  that  the  organic  portion  of  the 
manure  when  placed  in  the  ground  makes  available  inorganic  elements 

143 


which  were  placed  there  by  nature  and  will  remain  dormant  until  the 
end  of  time  unless  stimulated  to  activity  by  the  application  of  organic 
matter. 

Rotation 

There  is  no  feature  of  cotton  raising  more  important  than  rotation. 
Land  becomes  cotton  sick,  it  becomes  diseased,  it  harbors  cotton 
pests  and  becomes  weary  from  producing  the  same  crop  year  after 
year. 

Rotation  gives  it  new  life,  improves  the  texture,  relieves  the  drain 
and  supplies  elements  from  the  atmosphere.  Probably  the  best  rota- 
tion that  has  been  suggested  is  one  used  in  Louisiana  which  is  as  follows: 

Three  fields  are  selected.  Field  No.  1  the  first  year  is  planted  to 
cotton.  Field  No.  2  to  corn  with  cow  peas  in  the  corn  after  the  last 
cultivation  and  field  No.  3  to  rust-proof  oats  with  cow  peas  after  the 
oats  are  harvested.  The  second  year  the  cotton  field  is  planted 
to  corn  and  peas.  The  corn  and  cow  pea  field  is  planted  to 
oats.  In  October  or  early  November,  the  field  of  oats  and  peas  is 
planted  to  cotton.  Thus  in  three  years  each  field  has  produced  one 
crop  of  cotton,  one  crop  of  corn,  one  crop  of  oats  and  two  crops  of  cow 
peas.  Each  plant  has  taken  different  quantities  of  plant  food  from  the 
soil  and  the  roots  of  each  plant  have  penetrated  to  different  depths 
and  the  cow  peas  have  not  only  furnished  an  abundance  of  humus,  but 
have  fixed  in  the  soil  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen.  Where  clover  can  be 
grown  it  should  be  placed  in  a  four  years'  rotation,  for  none  of  the 
legumes  are  as  beneficial  from  every  standpoint  as  clover.  Alfalfa  is 
a  splendid  crop  to  grow  in  a  five  years'  rotation  permitting  the 
alfalfa  to  stand  five  years  before  it  is  plowed. 

Seed 

It  has  been  demonstrated  in  Mississippi,  Louisiana  and  some  of  the 
other  cotton  states  that  by  carefully  selecting  plump  healthy  seed  which 
has  not  deteriorated  because  of  heating  or  exposure,  the  crop  is  very 
materially  increased.  One  planter  made  a  test  of  seed  which  was  care- 
fully selected  in  the  field  from  the  earliest  maturing  and  the  largest 
and  healthiest  stalks,  and  made  an  increase  of  one  hundred  per  cent 
over  seed  which  was  not  selected. 

Cotton,  like  corn  is  true  to  heredity  and  will  usually  produce  its 
own  kind,  hence  this  feature  should  be  observed  by  the  planter  in 
order  that  he  may  be  amply  compensated  for  his  labor  and  investment. 

Diseases  and  Pests 

Wilt  or  black  root  is  a  very  serious  disease  affecting  cotton  in  some 
sections  of  the  cotton  district.  It  made  its  first  appearance  in  Georgia 
and  seems  to  be  more  prevalent  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  and 

144 


other  states  than  north.  When  the  plants  are  first  affected,  they  turn 
a  pale  yellow  and  in  a  few  days  they  are  dead.  Prof.  Warsham  made 
a  systematic  study  of  the  disease.  Mr.  A.  C.  Lewis  has  issued  a  bulle- 
tin giving  the  results  of  the  Professor's  investigations  that  seems  so 
comprehensive  and  valuable  that  we  take  the  liberty  to  reproduce 
some  of  the  statements  made  by  him. 

"The  first  outward  s3mitoms  of  black  root  is  generally  a  wilting  of 
some  of  the  leaves.  Many  of  the  young  plants  die  within  a  few  days 
after  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  appear,  which  is  usually  when  they 
are  about  six  weeks  old.  Plants  will  continue  to  die  now  and  then 
until  frost.  Some  of  the  plants  attacked  may  partially  recover  from 
the  disease,  and  put  out  side  branches  near  the  ground,  but  as  a  rule 
these  branches  do  not  produce  much  cotton.  In  the  course  of  time 
plants  killed  by  the  black  root  disease  lose  all  their  leaves,  and  the 
small  branches  drop  off  leaving  only  the  blackened  stem  standing. 
Many  plants  that  are  not  killed  outright  by  the  disease  are  much 
stunted  in  growth  and  their  yield  reduced.  This  phase  of  the  disease 
is  often  overlooked  by  many  planters.  In  several  instances  nearly 
whole  fields  have  been  found  in  this  stunted  condition  and  the  owner 
was  not  even  aware  that  the  cotton  was  diseased. 

"The  internal  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  very  characteristic,  so 
that  it  is  not  difficult  to  tell  black  root  from  any  other  disease  that  cotton 
is  subjected  to  in  Georgia.  If  the  roots  and  stem  of  a  diseased  plant 
are  examined  by  cutting  lengthwise,  it  will  be  found  that  the  woody 
portions  are  black  or  much  discolored.  This  is  the  symptom  that 
has  given  the  disease  the  name  'black  root.' 

"The  cause  of  the  cotton  disease  commonly  called  'black  root'  or 
'wilt'  is  a  fungus,  which  attacks  the  roots  and  stem  of  the  plants.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  the  fungus  lives  on  the  decaying  cotton  roots  and  stems 
and  in  the  soil  mainly  in  the  form  of  spores.  (The  spores  correspond- 
ing to  the  seeds  of  the  higher  plants.)  In  the  spring  when  the  cotton 
begins  to  form  rootlets  and  roots  these  are  attacked  by  the  fungus. 
The  fungus  penetrates  the  roots  and  grows  up  into  the  stem  following 
the  water  ducts  and  plugging  them  with  its  mydelium.  This  prevents 
the  upward  flow  of  sap  from  the  roots,  thus  cutting  off  the  food  supply 
and  stunting  or  killing  the  plants. 

"Some  seasons  the  black  root  disease  is  worse  than  in  other  seasons. 
This  may  be  due  to  one  or  two  causes,  the  weather  conditions  or  the 
number  of  nematodes  in  the  soil.  Thus  it  has  been  observed  that 
the  disease  is  more  severe  during  a  wet  season  than  a  dry  one.  Fre- 
quently we  have  received  letters  from  cotton  gi'owers  stating  that 
in  a  few  days  after  the  last  rain,  much  of  their  cotton  wilted  and  died. 
They  wanted  to  know  the  reason  for  this,  not  suspecting  before  the 
rain  that  the  cotton  was  diseased.     While  it  is  true  that  wet  weather  is 

145 


favorable  and  dry  weather  unfavorable,  to  the  disease,  weather  con- 
ditions such  as  heat  or  cold  have  never  been  known  to  exterminate  the 
fungus. 

"As  the  fungus  causing  the  black  root  disease  of  cotton  only  attacks 
cotton  and  okra,  it  follows  that  planting  the  land  in  other  crops  will 
slowly  starve  out  the  fungus.  Thus  far  though  all  attempts  have  failed 
to  completely  eradicate  the  fungus  from  the  soil  of  infected  fields, 
even  with  a  rotation  of  ten  years.  Rotation  of  crops  is  important, 
however,  in  the  control  of  the  black  root  disease  on  account  of  the 
nematode  worms. 

"Our  experiments  and  those  conducted  by  Prof.  W.  A.  Orton 
show  that  fungicides,  such  as  Bordeaux  mixture,  copper  sulphate,  copper 
carbonate,  liver  of  sulphur,  formalin,  sulphur,  sulphur  and  lime,  are  of 
no  value  in  controlling  the  black  root  disease  of  cotton. 

"Tn  variety  tests  made  in  1900  by  Prof.  W.  A.  Orton,  the  Jackson 
Limbless  was  found  to  be  the  most  resistant  to  the  disease  of  the  varie- 
ties tested.  By  continued  selection  of  the  most  resistant  plants  from 
this  variety,  he  has  secured  a  strain  of  this  type  of  cotton  which  is 
very  resistant  to  the  black  root  disease  of  cotton.  This  restraint 
strain  he  has  named  the  Dillon.  The  Dixie  originated  from  a  selection 
made  by  Prof.  W.  A.  Orton,  in  Alabama,  in  1901.  In  1905  Prof.  Orton 
kindly  furnished  us  some  seed  of  both  of  these  varieties.  Each  year  in 
our  tests  they  have  proven  to  be  quite  resistant  to  the  disease,  only 
ten  per  cent  to  fifty  per  cent  dying,  where  seventy-five  per  cent  to 
ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  ordinary  varieties  died." 

Other  Diseases 

We  will  not  attempt  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  other  diseases  of 
cotton,  but  will  simply  refer  to  them. 

Anthracnose 

A  disease  known  as  Anthracnose  attacks  bolls,  stems,  and  leaves. 
It  appears  in  the  form  of  a  fungus  parasite  in  all  stages  of  the  growth 
of  the  plant. 

Leaf  Blight 

Leaf  blight  is  a  fungus  that  attacks  mainly  the  older  leaves  of  the 
plant. 

Mildew 
This  is  also  a  fungus  disease  that  affects  the  leaves. 

Mosaic  Disease,  or  Yellow  Blight 

is  a  disease  due  to  the  poor  condition  of  the  soil  and  surroundings. 
If  the  plant  is  kept  healthy,  clean  and  growing,  it  is  not  usually  attacked 
by  this  disease. 

146 


Red  Rust 

This  disease  is  caused  by  the  red  spider.  Strong  healthy  plants 
are  not  usually  affected. 

Remedies 

While  many  remedies  are  recommended  and  probably  all  have  some 
merit,  the  best  remedy  suggested  by  thorough  cotton  growers  is  fitting 
the  plant  to  its  environment  and  adopting  a  systematic  rotation.  It 
is  conceded  that  where  planters  rotate  their  crops,  keeping  their  land  free 
from  weeds  and  trash,  they  eliminate  to  a  great  extent,  all  varieties 
of  diseases.  A  deep  seed-bed  thoroughly  drained  and  pulverized, 
an  abundance  of  organic  matter  and  plant  food,  good  seed  and  the 
right  cultivation  are  preventives  of  diseases,  which  are  far  more 
effective  than  any  of  the  cures  that  are  recommended. 


BOLL  WEEVIL 


SO  much  has  been  written  about  this  pest  both  from  a  practical 
and  theoretical  standpoint  that  we  will  offer  but  four  simple 
suggestions  which  if  adopted  by  the  planter  will  be  of  material 
benefit  in  eradicating   this  insect. 

1.  Drain  the  land  in  order  to  insure  an  early  rapid  growth  of  the 
plant. 

2.  Select  strong  seed  from  the  best  and  earliest  maturing  plants. 

3.  Keep  the  land  where  the  cotton  is  grown  and  all  adjacent  strios 
absolutely  clean. 

4.  Grow  cotton  in  rotation  making  a  legume  one  of  the  crops  in 
the  rotation. 

For  a  number  of  years  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  and  Entomology 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  have  been  untiring 
in  their  efforts  to  solve  the  problem  of  eradicating  this  arch  enemy  of 
cotton.  Their  researches  are  so  valuable  that  we  take  the  liberty  of 
presenting  them. 

"1.     The  cotton  boll  weevil  feeds  upon  nothing  but  cotton. 

"2.  It  goes  into  winter  quarters  mainly  in  or  near  the  field  of  its 
depredations. 

"3.  Comparatively  few  weevils  survive  the  winter  and  emerge  in 
the  spring. 

"4.  The  overwintered  weevil  feeds  upon  the  terminal  buds  of  the 
young  cotton  plants  until  the  forms  or  squares  develop,  then  the  female 
deposits  her  eggs  in  the  squares,  exclusively  at  first,  but  later  deposits 
them  also  in  the  immature  bolls. 

147 


"5.  The  life  of  the  adult  weevil  when  supplied  with  food  is  about 
70  days.  If  deprived  of  food  it  lives  only  6  or  7  days,  except  in  hiber- 
nation. 

"6.  For  a  period  after  emergence  from  winter  quarters  the  weevil 
is  comparatively  sluggish  and  while  feeding  upon  the  cotton  plants 
it  may  be  picked  or  poisoned. 

**7.  The  weevils  remain  mainly  in  the  field  where  they  locate  in 
the  early  spring  until  they  become  very  numerous.  Their  principal 
period  of  migration  is  in  the  fall. 

Based  upon  these  life  habits  of  the  weevil,  the  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry  has  planned  its  fight  for  the  production  of  cotton,  which  may 
be  summarized  as  follows: 

(1)  Under  boll-weevil  infestation  the  fields  selected  for  .cultivation 
should  be  well  drained,  because  a  successful  crop  will  then  depend  upon 
the  possibility  of  cultivating  them  at  the  proper  time.  The  low, 
poorly  drained  lands  should  be  devoted  to  other  crops.  They  have 
always  been  an  uncertain  factor  in  cotton  production.  It  is  not  the 
intention  to  state  that  well  drained  alluvial  land  should  not  be 
planted    to    cotton. 

(2)  The  early  destruction  of  the  cotton  stalks  before  frost  and  the 
burning  of  all  rubbish  in  and  about  the  infested  fields  are  imperative. 

(3)  Break  the  field  deep  as  early  in  the  fall  as  possible  with  an  im- 
plement that  does  not  bring  too  much  of  the  subsoil  to  the  surface. 
Some  winter  cover  crop  should  be  grown  if  practicable;  if  not,  harrow 
occasionally  during  the  winter.  Before  planting,  thoroughly  pulver- 
ize the  soil  and  make  the  best  seed-bed  possible. 

(4)  Care  must  be  taken  to  secure  seed  of  an  early-maturing  variety 
and  of  the  highest  vitality,  not  necessarily  a  small-boll  variety,  for  on 
uplands  we  have  been  more  successful  with  some  large-boll  varieties. 

(5)  Plant  reasonably  early  in  rows  somewhat  wider  apart  than 
under  non-boll-weevil  conditions.  Planting  should  be  delayed  until 
all  danger  from  frost  is  past  and  the  soil  is  warm  enough  to  produce 
rapid  germination  and  growth. 

(6)  The  use  of  the  section  harrow  before  planting  and  after  plant- 
ing, and  again  just  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  well  up,  is  advised. 

(7)  Use  intensive,  shallow  cultivation  of  the  crop  and  never  lay  by 
the  cotton  till  picking  commences.     Late  cultivation  is  very  important. 

(8)  In  case  it  is  evident  that  a  large  number  of  weevils  have  been 
overwintered,  it  is  advisable  to  hand-pick  or  poison  the  early  appear- 
ing weevils. 

(9)  As  soon  as  the  weevil  commences  to  work,  as  evidenced  by 
the  punctured  squares,  attach  a  pole  or  brush  to  the  handles  of  the 
cultivator  so  as  to  knock  the  squares  off.  Most  of  them  will  fall  of 
their  own  accord  in  a  few  days  after  they  are  punctured. 


(10)     Persistently  pick  up  and  burn  the  fallen  squares. 

"The  burning  of  the  stalks  is  very  destructive  to  the  weevils  in  the 
field,  but  its  value  depends  considerably  on  when  and  how  it  is  done. 
It  must  be  done  early  and  before  frost.  Demonstrations  have  been 
made  showing  that  it  caused  the  destruction  of  as  many  as  97  per  cent 
of  the  weevils  if  done  early  and  properly,  but  if  delayed  it  might  allow 
as  many  as  45  per  cent  to  escape. 

"There  are  several  methods  of  destroying  the  stalks.  First,  every 
third  or  fifth  row  may  be  allowed  to  stand  and  the  rows  on  each  side 
uprooted  and  thrown  against  it.  Second,  all  the  stalks  may  be  cut 
and  thrown  into  piles  of  convenient  size.  In  either  case,  some  of  the 
adult  weevils  will  collect  in  the  windrows  or  piles  and  be  destroyed 
when  the  stalks  are  burned. 

"The  object  in  destroying  the  stalks  is  a  twofold  one:  (1)  to  deprive 
the  adult  weevil  of  food  and  breeding  places;  (2)  to  kill  the  vast  number 
of  weevil  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupae  contained  in  the  squares  and  immature 
bolls  at  this  time.  To  make  this  destruction  complete,  the  stalks 
should  be  burned  as  soon  as  possible  after  being  cut  and  piled.  As 
soon  as  the  foliage  will  burn  readily  fire  should  be  applied,  although 
the  main  stem  and  branches  may  not  yet  be  dry  enough  to  burn. 
All  rubbish  in  and  about  the  field  should  also  be  burned  and  the  field 
immediately  broken. 

"If  this  single  instruction  to  destroy  all  cotton  stalks  in  the  fall 
while  still  green  could  be  carried  out  by  every  grower,  it  would  practi- 
cally solve  the  weevil  problem.  The  difficulty  is  that  only  part  of 
the  growers  follow  the  plan.  It  requires  early-maturing  cotton  and 
rapid  gathering  to  get  the  crop  out  in  time  to  do  this  work  to  the  best 
advantage. ' ' 


TOBACCO 


TOBACCO  culture  is  an  agricultural  specialty.  To  successfully  grow 
the  plant  and  secure  a  high-grade  product,  requires  a  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  requirements  of  the  tobacco  plant  and  thoroughly 
seasoned  experience.  The  best  advice  we  can  give  to  any  one  who 
contemplates  engaging  in  the  business  is  to  secure  all  the  data  avail- 
able from  the  state  agricultural  college  or  experimental  station  where 
he  contemplates  beginning  operations,  and  then  spend  one  year  or  more 
with  an  experienced  grower,  not  in  a  library  or  under  a  shade  tree, 
but  in  the  field,  from  the  day  the  seed-bed  is  being  made  until  the 
plants  are  sorted,  cured  and  baled. 

We  are  convinced  that  the  most  learned   theoretical  dissertation 
which  could  be  produced  would  fail  to  remove  many  stumbling  blocks 

149 


which  the  novice  is  sure  to  encounter,  hence  our  advice  to  take  a  pre- 
hminary  course  in  the  school  of  experience. 


DRY-LAND  FARMING 


DRY-LAND  farming  is  a  name  given  to  tilhng  the  land  in  sections 
of  the  country  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  scant.  The  principles 
involve  intensive  cultivation  and  proper  management  with  a  view  of 
storing  water  in  the  deeper  subsoils  and  subsequently  preventing  need- 
less  waste  by  evaporation. 

The  principles,  however,  applied  to  dry-land  farming  are  applicable 
to  any  section  of  the  United  States,  and  when  all  farmers  adopt  the 
same  thorough  method  of  tillage  that  the  dry-land  farmers  are  obliged 
to,  if  they  are  at  all  successful,  the  increase  in  production  will  be  far 
greater  than  the  increase  in  our  population.  What  is  termed  dry  land 
will  not  tolerate  careless  work  or  neglect.  All  operations  from  the  seed- 
bed to  the  harvest  are  interdependent,  and  the  harvest  will  correspond 
to  the  weakest  step  in  the  several  operations. 

An  improperly  made  seed-bed  is  like  a  shifting  sand  foundation  for  a 
house.  The  seed-bed  is  the  foundation  for  the  crop.  It  must  be  so 
made  that  it  will  readily  receive  and  absorb  rainfalls,  be  they  light 
or  heavy.  Primarily  it  must  be  deep  and  mellow.  A  deep,  mellow  seed- 
bed acts  as  a  temporary  reservoir  to  receive  and  hold  water  until  it 
precolates  into  the  deeper  subsoils.  If  it  is  shallow,  a  rainfall  of  two 
or  three  inches  during  one  shower  will  not  be  absorbed,  but  as  soon  as 
the  hard-pan  is  reached  the  surplus  will  run  away, 

A  deep  seed-bed  insures  a  rapid  and  strong  development  of  young 
roots  with  strength  to  penetrate  deep.  A  shallow  seed-bed  means 
delicate  roots  which  seek  the  course  of  least  resistance  in  the  loose 
surface  soils.  That  statement  can  be  verified  by  any  farmer  who  will 
take  the  trouble  to  make  a  careful  investigation.  A  deep  seed-bed 
means  good  ventilation  and  an  abundance  of  room  for  plant  food.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  plant  roots  first  seek  water  and  they  will  go 
to  it  if  they  have  strength,  hence  the  farmer  should  exert  every  effort 
to  encourage  their  early  development. 

In  order  to  make  this  subject  plain,  let  us  start  with  a  field  of  ripe 
grain.  The  grain  shades  the  ground,  and  in  a  measure,  prevents  the 
broiling  sun  from  drawing  away  moisture.  Moisture  is  the  elixir  of 
plant  life,  and  every  particle  possible  must  be  saved.  How  can  this 
be  accomplished  ?  You  know  that  the  surface  is  full  of  cracks,  you 
know  that  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  cut,  every  stalk  is  an  escape  chimney. 
You  know  that  moisture  will  escape  by  both  cracks  and  stems.  What 
should  be  done? 


The  answer  is  easy.  Stop  up  the  leaks.  Follow  the  binder  with  a 
disc  harrow.  That  implement  forms  a  mulch  that  effectually  closes 
up  the  little  openings,  and  at  the  same  time  works  into  the  soil  the 
stubble.  You  have  accomplished  three  very  important  things.  First, 
you  have  checked  the  escape  of  moisture,  second  the  surface  is  made 
mellow,  an  essential  condition  in  the  event  of  rains.  Third,  you  have 
worked  the  stubble  into  the  seed-bed  so  that  when  the  plow  turns  the 
furrow  slice  the  trash  will  not  act  as  an  insulation  to  prevent  capillary 
attraction. 

The  next  step  is  plowing.  The  sooner  the  ground  is  plowed  after 
harvest  the  better,  provided  that  the  plow  is  followed  with  implements 
calculated  to  place  the  soil  in  a  condition  to  store  and  conserve  mois- 
ture. If  the  ground  is  plowed  and  left  loose  and  lumpy,  it  would  be 
better  not  to  plow  it  at  all  until  seeding  time,  unless  the  plowing  is 
done  late  in  the  fall. 

The  harrow,  disc  or  packer  should  follow  the  plow  if  the  plowing  is 
done  at  any  time  other  than  just  before  winter  sets  in.  If  the  ground 
is  lumpy  and  much  trash  exists,  the  disc  gives  the  best  results.  If  the 
soil  is  well  pulverized,  harrowing  is  sufficient.  If  the  gi'ound  is  loose 
and  lumpy,  a  subsurface  packer  should  be  used.  On  light  soil,  a  cor- 
rugated roller  firms  the  surface,  and  at  the  same  time  leaves  the  soil 
in  little  ridges,  a  desirable  condition  to  absorb  rains. 

Kind  of  Implements  to  Use 

In  this  connection,  I  desire  to  emphasize  the  necessity  of  using  the 
right  kind  of  implements.  It  must  be  remembered  that  thorough 
work  can  be  accomplished  only  by  having  good,  suitable  tools,  and 
without  them  the  dry-land  farmer  will  fail.  The  plow  should  be  a 
keen  cutting  steel  implement,  capable  of  turning  a  furrow  83-  or  9 
inches.  The  disc  harrow  is  indispensable  both  before  and  after  plowing. 
A  double  disc  is  preferable  to  the  single.  A  disc  is,  on  account  of  the 
sharp  blades,  very  searching.  It  pulverizes  and  packs  the  soil  uni- 
formly from  the  surface  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow. 

The  subsurface  packer  is  of  great  value  as  a  pulverizer  of  both  sur- 
face and  deep  clods,  packing  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  inches. 
Often  there  are  lumps  or  air  spaces  at  or  near  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
row and  unless  they  are  crushed  and  the  air  spaces  closed  up,  capil- 
lary water  will  not  come  from  the  deeper  subsoils  to  the  seed-bed. 
Again,  plants  gather  food  and  moisture  from  the  soil  particles  which  are 
coated  with  moisture,  holding  plant  food  in  solution.  If  lumps  exist, 
the  delicate  roots  are  unable  to  penetrate  them,  but  spread  over  the 
surface,  securing  the  benefit  of  only  a  small  per  cent  of  territory  in 
the  seed-bed.  The  particles  of  soil  are  so  small  that  it  requires  one 
thousand  or  more  laid  side  by  side  to  make  an  inch,  hence,  if  a  lump 

161 


has  an  area  of  one  inch  from  which  the  Uttle  roots  gather  food,  the  area 
is  increased  one  thousand  fold  if  the  lump  is  thoroughly  pulverized. 

Packer 

The  subsurface  packer  is  indispensable  to  the  dry-land  farmer.  In 
fact,  it  is  practically  useless  to  undertake  to  produce  crops  in  many 
regions  where  the  rainfall  is  abnormally  low  during  the  growing  season, 
unless  the  seed-bed  is  made  compact.     The  wedge-shaped  wheels  pack 


"V"  Flexible  Pulverizer  and  Packer  ..  Indispensable  to  the  Dry-Land  Parmer  and  Beneficial 

in  Most  Localities 


and  pulverize  the  soil,  just  as  a  fork  crushes  a  boiled  potato,  or  the 
railroad  builder's  spade  packs  the  dirt  under  the  ties.  This  implement 
used  on  forty  acres  of  wheat  land  in  a  normal  year  will  increase  the 
yield  in  one  crop  enough  to  pay  for  the  tool  and  the  .cost  of  labor. 

Corrugated  Roller 

The  double  gang  pulverizer,  known  as  a  corrugated  roller,  packer 
and  clod  crusher  is  valuable  for  at  least  three  things.  First,  it  pulver- 
izes the  surface.  The  back  roll  of  wheels  is  so  placed  that  the  cutting 
edge  of  each  wheel  mismatch  the  pulverizing  done  by  the  wheels  of 
the  front  gang.  This  hit-and-miss  arrangement  of  wheels  insures  that 
no  clods  are  missed  and  the  ground  is  left  in  little  ridges,  a  very  desir- 
able condition  to  catch  and  absorb  rains.  If  used  after  seeding,  the 
soil  is  made  compact  around  the  seed,  thereby  hastening  germination. 

Second,  in  sections  where  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  the  smooth  roller 
on  account  of  the  soil  drifting  or  the  sub-surface  packer  because  it  is 

162 


not  needed,  this  implement  gives  remarkable  results.  If  the  roller  is 
run  at  right  angles  to  the  prevailing  wind,  it  prevents,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, the  soil  from  blowing.  The  hollow  spaces  between  the  ridges, 
which  are  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches  deep,  contain  dead  air  and 
the  current  of  dead  air  above  holds  it  in  place  and  supports  the  edges, 
on  the  same  principle  that  water  in  a  httle  bayou  on  the  border  of  a 
swift  stream  is  always  still,  held  as  it  is  in  place  by  the  pressure  of  the 
stream.     This  feature  alone  is  of  great  value  in  windy  sections. 

Third,  the  fluted  shape  of  the  wheel  so  pulverizes  the  soil  that  a 
mulch  is  formed  which  prevents  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture.  The 
implement  is  used  to  good  advantage  on  grain  after  it  is  up.  The  soil 
is  made  compact  about  the  roots  and  the  mulch  prevents  the  escape  of 
moisture. 

Storing  Water 

Farm  crops  require  water,  and  without  it  they  will  not  grow.  It 
requires  300  pounds  of  water  to  make  one  pound  of  dry  matter,  or  from 
400  to  700  tons  to  mature  an  acre  of  cereals,  corn,  hay  or  root  crops. 

In  semi-arid  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  from  ten  to  eighteen  inches 
and  the  greater  portion  of  that  during  the  winter  and  early  spring, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  store  the  water  in  the  subsoils  to  be  utilized 
during  the  summer  or  growing  season.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  produce 
a  good  crop  without  rain  during  the  entire  growing  season,  if  care  is 
giving  to  storing  and  conserving  moisture. 

No  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down  regarding  the  amount  of  water  which 
can  be  stored  in  the  soil.  The  amount  depends,  1st  on  the  amount  of 
rainfall,  2d  on  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  3d  on  its  holding 
power;  4th  on  the  amount  of  evaporation  due  to  heat  and  wind;  5th 
upon  the  surface  tillage  or  the  vegetable  growth. 

The  irrigating  farmer  floods  his  land,  thereby  furnishing  moisture 
from  the  surface.  The  humid-section  farmer  depends  on  occasional 
showers  to  make  his  crop,  and  the  dry  farmer  irrigates  from  below 
upwards. 

The  dry-land  farmer  who  fails  to  store  water  in  the  subsoils  is  in 
the  same  predicament  as  the  irrigating  farmer  who  fails  to  fill  his 
reservoir.  If  the  supply  is  inadequate  in  either  case  during  one  sea- 
son, they  must  wait  until  a  sufficient  amount  is  provided.  The  irriga- 
tor waits  until  his  reservior  is  replenished,  the  other  summer-fallows. 

Water  obeys  the  law  of  gravitation.  When  it  strikes  the  surface 
it  follows  the  course  of  least  resistance.  If  the  surface  is  porous  the 
water  soaks  in  rapidly,  but  if  it  is  hard  and  impervious,  it  runs  away 
or  is  lost  by  evaporation.  If  the  porous  condition  is  eight  or  nine  inches 
deep,  it  will  take  care  of  two  or  three  inches  of  rainfall,  but  if  it  is 
shallow,  as  soon  as  the  porous  stratum  is  filled,  the  surplus  is  lost. 
Hence,  the  necessity  of  at  all  times  maintaining  a  depth  and  porous 

153 


condition  of  the  soil  that  is  conducive  to  rapid  absorption.      More 
failures  are  due  to  shallow  plowing  than  any  other  cause. 

Sub-Soiling 

The  subsoil  plow  is  invaluable  if  the  condition  of  the  soil  requires 
it,  and  the  implement  is  of  the  right  type.  If  the  subsoil  is  porous, 
it  is  of  no  special  benefit,  but  if  a  hard-pan  exists,  or  the  ground  below 
the  reach  of  the  ordinary  plow  is  so  hard  that  it  does  not  absorb  water 
readily,  it  is  of  great  assistance  in  storing 
water.  In  fact  it  practically  solves  the  problem 
of  storing  water  in  dry  sections. 

The  implement  is  not  intended  to  bring 
the  subsoil  to  the  surface  but  simply  to  cut 
a  gash  in  the  hard-pan,  permitting  the 
entrance  of  air  and  water.  If  the  point 
of  the  plow  is  large,  and  the  ground  is 


The  Taylor  Subsoil  Plow  ..  This  Implement  Solves  the  Problem  of  Storing  Water  and 
Breaking  Up  a  Hard-Pan 

hard,  it  forms  air  spaces  which  prevent  capillary  attraction,  hence, 
the  only  safe  subsoil  plow  to  use  is  one  with  a  thin  blade  and  very  small 
point.  The  point  should  not  be  more  than  an  inch  in  thickness.  The 
small  point  forms  a  reservoir  for  water  and  from  it  the  water  naturally 
spreads  outward  and  obeying  the  law  of  capillary  attraction,  it  moves 
upward  followed  by  air.  Air  and  water  acting  in  that  way  mellows 
the  soil,  thereby  destroying  a  hard-pan  or  any  extreme  compactness 
of  the  ground  that  may  exist.  The  blade  or  cutter  should  not  exceed 
one-half  inch  in  thickness.  Such  a  plow  can  be  drawn  by  two  horses, 
cutting  a  gash  ten  or  twelve  inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  furrow. 
Engine  gangs  can  be  equipped  with  a  subsoil  attachment,  placing  one 
on  each  alternate  plow.  In  sections  of  the  country  where  the  weather 
is  cold  during  the  winter  months,  late  plowing,  leaving  the  surface  rough 
is  very  advantageous  because  land  in  that  condition  catches  and  holds 
snow  and  rains  much  better  than  when  it  is  smooth  and  frozen.  During 
the  intervening  time,  however,  between  harvesting  and  late  fall,  the 
surface  should  be  kept  in  a  condition  to  readily  receive  and  retain  mois- 


ture.  In  southern  latitudes  where  the  ground  does  not  freeze,  to  leave 
the  surface  in  a  rough  state  would  assist  evaporation.  The  farmer 
should  be  governed  by  conditions  and  adopt  the  best  possible  plan  to 
prevent  the  loss  of  water. 

Conserving  Water 

Conserving  water  is  just  as  essential  as  storing  it.  We  know  the 
amount  of  water  required  to  make  the  crop.  We  know  that  it  can  be 
stored  in  the  subsoils  nearly  as  well  as  in  a  cistern,  provided  it  is  not 
carried  off  with  an  under-fiow  or  the  subsoil  is  not  a  deep  sand  or  gravel, 
and  we  know  that  unless  proper  means  are  used,  water  will  escape  by 
evaporation  to  the  extent  of  one  or  more  inches  during  a  hot,  windy  day. 
An  acre  inch  of  water  weighs  112  tons,  or  one-fourth  of  the  amount 
required  to  make  an  acre  of  good  wheat;  hence,  negligence  for  two  or 
three  days  may  cost  the  farmer  a  year  of  toil. 

The  amount  of  evaporation  depends  upon  the  type  and  character  of 
the  soil.  Shuebler  made  some  extensive  experiments  with  the  following 
results: 


Kind  of  Soil 


There  evaporated  I 

Ia  I^^^'t:^  hours  at  Equal  weights  of  the  wet  earths  be- 
60  deg.l^  trom  100  game  nine-tenths  dry  at  66  deg.  F.  in 
pounds  of  water  in 
the  wet  earths 


Pounds  of  Water 

Quartz  Sand 

88  4 

Calcareous  Sand 

75.9 

Clay,    containing    60    per 
cent   clay   and   40    per 
cent  fine  sand 

52.0 

Loamy  Clay,  76  per  cent 
clay  and  24  per  cent  fine 
sand 

45.7 

Vegetable  Mould 

20.5 

Garden  Loam      _    _ 

24.5 

Loam  from  a  plowed  field 

32.0 

Hours 

Minutes 

4 

4 

4 

44 

6 

55 

7 

52 

17 

33 

14 

49 

11 

15 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table  that  a  soil  containing  organic 
matter  such  as  we  find  in  vegetable  mould,  garden  loams  and  loams 
from  plowed  fields,  lose  less  water  by  evaporation  than  sandy  soils  and 
clay  loams  or  any  soil  which  is  not  thoroughly  impregnated  with  humus. 
It  is  also  true  that  the  best  soils  for  agricultural  purposes  possess  a 
medium  absorbative  power.  A  good  grain  soil  has  a  water-holding 
capacity  of  between  40  and  70  per  cent. 

Limestone  soils  and  sandy  soils  are  not  desirable  for  dry-land  farming 
purposes  for  the  reason  that  they  do  not  retain  moisture.     It  has  fre- 

155 


quently  been  demonstrated  in  light  and  loamy  soils,  that  the  power 
to  hold  water  is  much  greater  when  the  soil  has  been  well  manured  than 
it  was  before  the  manure  had  been  applied. 

A  very  fine  sandy  soil  absorbs  water  very  freely  and  has  a  high  capil- 
larity, but  at  the  same  time  it  tends  to  hold  water  quite  forcibly.  This 
is  not  true  of  coarse  sand,  however.  Clay  soils,  on  acccount  of  their 
density,  do  not  absorb  water  readily,  but  by  the  addition  of  manure, 
their  permeability  is  greatly  increased,  likewise  their  ability  to  retain 
moisture. 

Quoting  from  Widtsoe:  "In  1868  Nessler  found  that  during  six  weeks 
of  an  ordinary  German  summer,  a  certain  soil  under  cultivation  lost  510 
grams  of  water  per  square  foot,  while  an  adjoining  compact  soil  not  cul- 
tivated lost  1680  grams,  a  saving  due  to  cultivation  of  nearly  60  per 
cent.  Wagner's  experiments  along  the  same  lines  resulted  in  saving 
more  than  60  per  cent  by  cultivation.  Johnson,  in  1878,  confirmed 
the  truth  of  the  principle  above  mentioned  on  American  soils.  Stock- 
bridge  found  that  cultivation  diminished  evaporation  on  clay  soils  23 
per  cent  and  on  sandy  loam  55  per  cent,  and  on  heavy  loam  13  per  cent. 
Fortier,  working  under  California  conditions,  determined  that  cultiva- 
tion reduced  the  evaporation  from  the  soil  surface  over  55  per  cent.  At 
the  Utah  Station  the  saving  of  soil  moisture  by  cultivation  was  63  per 
cent  for  a  clay  soil,  34  per  cent  for  a  coarse  sand  and  13  per  cent  for  a 
clay  loam. 

The  process  of  conservation  is  simple.  A  surface  mulch  is  effective, 
and  if  maintained  there  is  little  danger  of  losing  cultivated  crops,  and 
grain  crops  are  in  a  great  measure  protected  by  it. 

The  corrugated  roller  is  beneficial  to  grain  by  forming  a  surface  mulch, 
even  when  the  grain  is  grown  to  the  extent  of  jointing.  It  firms  the  soil 
about  the  roots,  and  at  the  same  time  closes  effectually  surface  cracks. 
If  the  soil  is  hard,  the  harrow  is  of  great  benefit.  Either  plan  is  very 
beneficial  until  the  grain  has  attained  a  growth  sufficient  to  shade  and 
protect  the  surface  from  wind  and  heat.  In  cultivated  crops  the  mulch 
must  be  renewed  as  soon  as  cracks  form  after  rains. 

Capillary  Attraction 

Capillary  attraction  is  nature's  process  of  moving  water  from  the 
deeper  subsoils  to  the  surface.  Stored  water  passes  upward  from  soil 
particle  to  soil  particle,  forming  a  film  around  each  atom  of  soil  until  it 
is  consumed  by  growing  plants,  or  passes  into  the  air  by  evaporation. 
Water  will  rise  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet,  depending  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil.  Deep-rooting  plants,  such  as  the  lucernes,  will 
secure  moisture  from  a  depth  of  twelve  to  eighteen  feet.  The  rapidity 
of  the  movement  of  capillary  water  depends  upon  the  compact,  uniform 
proximity  of  the  soil  particles  to  each  other.     In  coarse  ground,  the 

156 


movement  is  slow,  and  in  lumpy  ground  where  air  spaces  exist,  it  is 
materially  retarded  or  entirely  stopped.  Hence,  we  emphasize  the 
necessity  of  carefully  pulverizing  the  surface  before  plowing,  the  seed- 
bed after  plowing,  and  subsequently  making  it  compact.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  trash  not  worked  into  the  seed-bed  before  plowing 
will  form  an  insulation  on  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  that  effectually 
stops  the  upward  movement  of  capillary  water.  Too  often  a  crop  is  lost 
after  the  moisture  in  the  seed-bed  has  been  consumed  which  would 
have  been  saved  had  the  contact  between  the  furrow  slice  and  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow  been  made  compact. 

Hygroscopic  Moisture 

Hygroscopic  moisture  is  the  vapor  that  exists  in  the  air.  Surface 
soils,  if  they  are  of  good  tilth  and  rich  in  humus,  absorb  air  and  with  the 
air  moisture.  While  the  amount  is  not  sufficient  to  produce  crops,  it  is 
of  material  benefit  in  localities  where  heavy  dews  and  fogs  prevail. 
Hygroscopic  moisture  is  sufficient  to  maintain  plant  life  in  deserts. 

Summer-Fallowing 

Summer-fallowing,  or  summer  culture,  as  it  is  often  called,  is  another 
method  of  storing  and  conserving  moisture.  In  some  localities  the 
annual  rainfall  is  insufficient  to  grow  crops  each  year;  hence,  the  neces- 
sity of  cropping  the  land  alternate  years.  The  plan  that  has  been  suc- 
cessfully adopted  in  California,  Wyoming,  Utah,  Western  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  is  as  follows: 

As  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring,  land  that  has 
been  plowed  the  previous  year  is  disced  until  the  soil  is  loose  and  porous 
enough  to  absorb  any  rains  that  may  occur.  After  rains  and  as  soon  as 
a  crust  forms,  the  harrow  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  mulch 
blanket  and  to  destroy  weeds.  This  operation  is  continued  until  early 
fall,  when  the  ground  is  again  plowed,  disced,  and  if  lumpy  and  loose, 
made  compact  by  using  a  sub-surface  packer.  Wheat  is  then  drilled 
and  the  surface  made  compact  by  using  the  corrugated  roller.  To 
summer-fallow  and  not  cultivate  the  land  is  of  no  benefit,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  a  detriment  if  weeds  are  permitted  to  grow,  for  they  not  only 
consume  as  much  water  and  plant  food  as  a  crop,  but  in  the  absence  of 
a  mulch  blanket,  moisture  escapes. 

Widtsoe  has  the  following  to  say  in  regard  to  summer-fallowing: 

"King  has  shown  that  fallowing  the  soil  one  year  carried  over  per 
square  foot  in  the  upper  four  feet  9.38  pounds  of  water  more  than  was 
found  in  a  cropped  soil  in  a  parallel  experiment,  and,  moreover,  the 
beneficial  effect  of  this  water  was  felt  for  a  whole  succeeding  season." 

Widtsoe  states:  "Water  storage  is  manifestly  impossible  when  crops 
are  growing  upon  the  soil.  A  healthy  crop  of  sage  brush,  sunflowers  or 
other  weeds  consumes  as  much  water  as  a  first-class  stand  of  corn, 

167 


wheat  or  potatoes.     Weeds  should  be  abhorred  by  the  farmer.     A  weed 
fallow  is  a  sure  forerunner  of  a  crop  failure." 

Surface  Mulch 

A  surface  mulch  is  beneficial  in  preventing  the  escape  of  moisture,  but 
is  not  practical  on  a  large  scale.  Mulches  are  formed  of  straw,  manure, 
leaves  or  any  other  organic  substance.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that 
soil  under  a  mulch  during  the  heat  of  the  day  is  from  one  to  three  degrees 
cooler  than  bare  soil  and  the  amount  of  evaporation  is  much  less.  It  is 
not  advisable,  however,  to  place  a  mulch  on  ground  where  hoed  crops 
are  planted  until  after  they  have  been  cultivated  once  or  twice.  Mulches, 
in  addition  to  preventing  the  escape  of  moisture  and  keeping  the  ground 
cool,  hinder  the  growth  of  weeds,  if  the  mulch  is  thick  and  compact. 
They  are  used  very  extensively  by  truck  gardeners  and  are  especially 
beneficial  to  potatoes,  but  should  not  be  used  until  after  the  potatoes 
have  been  cultivated  at  least  twice.  After  a  mulch  has  been  placed  on 
the  ground,  it  should  not  be  disturbed  for  the  reason  that  roots  grow 
very  close  to  the  surface  owing  to  the  moist  condition  of  the  soil  under 
the  mulch,  and  if  the  mulch  is  removed,  the  plant  will  suffer  for  lack  of 
moisture. 

Fertility 

The  dry  farmer  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  necessity  of  maintaining  a 
high  state  of  fertility.  The  moisture-absorbing  and  retaining  power  of 
soil  depends  upon  the  amount  of  organic  matter  it  contains  and  the 
depth  and  tilth  of  the  seed-bed.  Soil  deficient  in  organic  matter  will 
not  retain  moisture  long  unless  it  is  a  heavy  clay.  Humus  is  necessary 
to  hold  nitrogen,  and  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  maintain  soil  bacteria. 
Nitrogen  can  be  maintained  by  planting  alfalfa,  cow  peas  and  soy  beans. 
If  the  soil  is  deficient  in  phosphorus,  and  manure  is  not  available,  it 
should  be  supplied  in  commercial  form.  Humus  can  be  supplied  by 
plowing  under  green  crops,  such  as  peas,  buckwheat,  rye,  vetch,  etc. 
A  deep  seed-bed  is  also  important,  for  in  such  the  roots  grow  deep  and 
are  usually  very  abundant.  The  fertility  in  dry  land  is  more  lasting 
than  in  humid  sections  for  the  reason  that  less  is  lost  by  washing  away 
and  by  leaching. 

Rotation 

Rotation  of  crops  should  not  be  overlooked.  Alfalfa  is  not  only  a 
drouth-resisting  legume,  but  it  improves  the  soil  in  every  way.  It 
furnishes  organic  matter  and  nitrogen.  It  renders  the  soil  porous,  and 
makes  available  latent  plant  food.  A  good  rotation  for  the  dry  farmer 
to  adopt  is  wheat,  peas,  potatoes,  running  alfalfa  six  years.  Other 
drouth-resisting  crops  can  be  placed  in  a  rotation  system.  Whether 
in  a  semi-arid  or  humid  section,  any  crop  grown  on  the  same  land  year 
after  year  will  gradually  decrease  in  production. 


Planting 

When  the  cHmate  will  permit,  it  is  advisable  to  sow  seed  in  the  fall. 
It  is  quite  important,  however,  to  secure  a  good  germination  and  a 
strong  growth  before  winter;  otherwise,  the  crop  will  winter-kill.  If 
the  kernel  simply  germinates  and  freezes,  it  will  die.  If  it  germinates 
and  the  growth  is  stopped  on  account  of  the  soil  being  devoid  of  mois- 
ture, it  will  start  again  if  it  receives  rain.  Instances  are  on  record  where 
a  grain  has  germinated  five  times,  securing  at  last  a  fairly  good  crop. 

The  farmer  should  use  good  judgment  in  selecting  the  time  to  plant. 
If  he  can  manage  to  plant  just  before  or  just  after  a  rain,  the  seed  will 
germinate  very  quickly  and  the  growth  will  be  rapid,  for  the  reason  that 
summer-fallowed  land  is  more  fertile — especially  in  the  nitrates,  in  the 
early  fall  than  in  the  spring.  It  is  well  known  that  nitrates  disappear 
to  a  great  extent  as  soon  as  the  weather  becomes  cold. 

Depth  to  Plant 

In  this  the  farmer  must  again  use  good  judgment.  The  depth  to 
which  seed  may  be  safely  placed  depends  upon  the  vitality  of  the  seed, 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  amount  of  available  water  and  the  physi- 
cal condition  of  the  soil.  We  know  that  the  seed  must  contain  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  nutrition  within  itself  to  germinate,  throwing  out 
holding  roots  and  a  stem  above  ground  far  enough  to  breathe  in  carbon- 
dioxide  before  plant  food  can  be  taken  out  of  the  soil.  If  the  seed  is 
planted  too  deep,  the  vitality  may  be  exhausted  before  the  stem  reaches 
air.  Again,  if  planted  too  shallow  and  rains  do  not  come  or  moisture 
is  not  drawn  from  below,  germination  will  not  take  place.  If,  however, 
the  seed  can  be  placed  in  moist  soil  at  a  reasonable  depth,  the  germi- 
nation is  so  quick  and  strong,  if  the  seed  is  exceptionally  rich,  that 
there  is  little  danger  of  the  vitality  being  exhausted  before  the  leaf 
begins  to  absorb  carbon.  It  is  always  a  good  plan  for  the  farmer  to 
anticipate  a  loss  of  a  per  cent  of  the  seed  by  sowing  a  greater  quantity 
than  is  expected  to  grow.  In  sowing  grain  the  drill  should  be  used. 
Broadcasting  has  proven  to  be  a  failure  in  dry-land  farming. 

After  the  farmer  has  sown  the  seed,  he  will  greatly  facilitate  germi- 
nation and  materially  assist  capillarity  by  using  the  corrugated  roller. 
In  sections  where  high  winds  prevail,  the  roller  should  be  run  at  right 
angles  to  the  predominating  wind. 

Seed 

The  dry-land  farmer  should  select  seed  and  strains  that  are  known 
to  possess  great  drouth-resisting  qualities.  He  should,  as  far  as  possi- 
ble use  seed  that  was  grown  in  his  vicinity,  unless  he  can  secure  some 
from  about  the  same  latitude  in  a  dry-land  section.  Great  care  should 
be  taken  in  selecting  seed  that  was  fully  matured  and  received  proper 


pare  from  the  time  it  was  harvested.      Immature  seed,  or  seed  heated 
in  a  stack  or  bin  makes  a  slow  germination  and  a  weak  growth. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  farmer  should  use  all  his  ingenuity 
in  storing  water,  pulverizing,  packing  the  seed-bed,  making  the  contact 
compact  between  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  the  furrow  slice  and 
maintaining  a  mulch,  if  he  expects  to  secure  profitable  crops  for  his 
labor.  The  neglect  of  any  one  step,  be  it  ever  so  slight,  is  generally 
reflected  in  the  final  production. 

Drouth-Resisting  Crops 

Crops  are  susceptible  to  discipline.  Many  varieties  can  be  bred  to 
meet  climatic  conditions  and  environments.  Seed  grown  in  a  humid 
country  will  be  a  failure  in  a  dry-land  section.  The  best  results  are 
obtained  from  seed  grown  for  a  series  of  years  in  the  immediate  locality 
where  it  is  to  be  planted. 

While  no  specific  varieties  for  every  section  where  dry-land  farming 
is  practiced  can  be  recommended,  our  best  authorities,  based  upon  their 
experiments,  suggest  the  following.  The  writer  regards  Dr.  John  A. 
Widtsoe,  Professor  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Utah,  as  being  one 
of  our  best  authorities  upon  this  subject.  While  he  mentions  several 
varieties  of  spring  wheat,  he  states  that  in  order  to  have  a  reasonable 
assurance  of  a  crop,  the  seed  must  become  thoroughly  acclimated. 
Of  the  winter  wheats,  the  Crimean  group  is  recommended.  The  most 
drouth  resisting  being  Turkey,  Kharkow  and  Crimean.  These  wheats 
originated  in  Russia  and  were  brought  to  this  country  many  years  ago. 
A  winter  variety  of  oats  known  as  the  Bosswell,  a  black  variety,  is 
highly  recommended.  Oats,  like  wheat,  must  be  acclimated.  Of 
barleys,  the  six-rowed  variety  is  suggested.  A  winter  variety  known 
as  the  Tennessee  Winter  is  giving  splendid  results.  Rye  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  best  drouth-resisting  plants  for  the  dry  farmer.  Emmer, 
an  ancient  wheat,  probably  after  becoming  thoroughly  acclimated,  is 
more  drouth-resisting  than  any  of  the  grains  mentioned.  A  variety  of 
corn  which  was  brought  to  Mexico,  does  very  well  in  semi-arid  regions. 
The  stalk  is  short  and  the  ear  small  and  is  Ideated  near  the  ground. 
Sorghums  are  very  drouth-resisting.  The  best  varieties  are  broom 
corns,  sweet  sorghums,  Kaffirs  and  Durras.  The  broom  corns  are  raised 
only  for  their  brush.  The  most  desirable  Kaffirs  to  raise  include  red 
and  white  Kaffirs,  Bkck-hulled  White  and  White  Milo.  The  Durras 
are  grown  almost  exclusively  for  seed  and  include  Jerusalem  corn. 
Brown  Durra  and  Milo.  Widtsoe  states  that  Milo  is  one  of  the  most 
important  dry-farm  crops.  Lucernes  are  being  very  successfully  grown 
in  dry-land  sections.  Cow  peas  and  soy  beans  are  successfully  raised 
after  being  acclimated. 


In  Conclusion 

the  writer  desires  to  impress  upon  the  dry-land  farmer  or  the  pros- 
pective dry-land  farmer  several  essential  points. 

First,  he  must  make  a  deep  seed-bed.  This  can  only  be  accomplished 
by  plowing  deep.  He  should  use  a  subsoil  plow,  an  implement  helpful 
in  storing  water.  If  land  cannot  be  plowed  deep  on  account  of  a  gravel 
or  sandy  subsoil,  it  is  labor  lost  to  attempt  to  farm  it. 

Second  discing  before  plowing  in  order  to  insure  a  compact  contact 
between  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  the  furrow  slice  is  also  neces- 
sary.    If  this  feature  is  not  observed,  stored  water  is  of  no  avail. 

Third,  discing  after  plowing  and  packing,  is  another  feature  that 
cannot  be  overlooked. 

Fourth,  if  the  rainfall  during  one  season  is  insufficient  to  make  a  crop, 
summer-fallowing  and  summer  cultivation  is  necessary,  for  crops  can- 
not be  grown  without  water. 

Fifth,  the  corrugated  roller,  as  a  mulch  maker  and  packer,  is  invalu- 
able. The  maintenance  of  a  surface  mulch  is  one  of  the  prime  features 
in  conserving  moisture. 

Sixth,  a  goodly  supply  of  humus  must  at  all  times  be  provided ;  other- 
wise, there  will  be  a  deficiency  of  nitrogen. 

Seventh,  to  plant  other  than  healthy,  plump,  acclimated  seed  usually 
spells  failure. 


ALFALFA 


ALFALFA  really  needs  no  introduction  to  the  American  farmer, 
-^~^  It  has  become  famous  from  the  far  west  to  the  extreme  east  and 
from  the  northern  boundary  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

No  other  crop  grown  on  the  farm  possesses  as  many  splendid  quali- 
ties as  alfalfa.  There  are  sections  in  the  United  States  where  the  cli- 
mate and  soil  do  not  seem  suited  to  the  plant,  but  with  the  gi'eat 
advancement  that  has  been  made  during  the  past  year  in  introducing 
and  cultivating  different  strains,  it  seems  possible  that  it  will  soon 
become  a  universal  stock  feed. 

Often  failures  are  due  to  the  farmer  not  complying  with  all  of  the 
requirements  which  are  essential.  This  is  due  largely  to  a  lack  of 
knowledge  of  the  needs  of  the  plant.  The  eastern  farmer  who  has 
never  raised  alfalfa  is  apt  to  be  governed  by  statements  made  by  the 
western  alfalfa  gi'ower.  In  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Cali- 
fornia and  other  states,  alfalfa  needs  little  attention.  The  soil  pos- 
sesses all  of  the  requirements  and  the  climate  is  ideal,  and  if  the  eastern, 
northern  and  southern  farmers  follow  directions  which  are  simply  to 

161 


162 


plow,  harrow  and  sow,  not  knowing  that  all  lands  do  not  possess  the 
essential  qualities,  they  will  meet  with  disappointment. 

Requirements 

Alfalfa  requires  a  deep  rich  thoroughly  pulverized  seed-bed.  If 
the  ground  water  is  too  near  the  surface,  that  is,  within  five  or  six  feet, 
the  roots  will  rot  as  soon  as  they  enter  the  water.  If  the  ground  is 
surcharged  with  water,  alfalfa  will  not  thrive  for  the  reason  that  the 
bacteria,  known  as  nitrogen  gatherers,  demand  atmospheric  oxygen. 
If  the  air  spaces  between  the  particles  of  soil  are  clogged  with  water, 
the  air  is  necessarily  driven  out  and  the  bacteria  will  perish ;  hence  in 
such  soils  the  land  should  be  drained  and  the  deeper  the  better.  It  is 
practically  useless  to  attempt  to  raise  alfalfa  on  the  flat  lowlands  of 
the  corn  belt  unless  they  are  thoroughly  drained. 

Alfalfa  Requires  a  Sweet  Soil 

Soil  on  account  of  continued  cropping  or  because  of  a  large  accumu- 
lation of  organic  matter  becomes  sour.  This  condition  can  be  remedied 
by  the  application  of  lime. 

Inoculation  Sometimes  Necessary 

It  is  often  necessary  that  the  soil  be  inoculated  with  a  bacteria  pecu- 
liar to  alfalfa,  and  without  that  inoculation  the  plant  will  not  thrive. 
These  bacteria  have  the  power  to  take  nitrogen  out  of  the  atmosphere 
and  fix  it  in  all  parts  of  the  plant.  All  soils  west  of  the  Missouri  River 
evidently  contain  these  bacteria,  but  most  of  the  soils  east  of  the  river 
are  devoid  of  the  micro-organisms  and  in  order  to  raise  the  alfalfa 
successfully  the  ground  should  be  inoculated. 

Qualities  of  Alfalfa 

Alfalfa  possesses  many  valuable  qualities. 

1.  In  fertile  soils  it  makes  a  rank  rapid  growth,  producing  from 
two  to  six  crops  annually,  depending  upon  the  length  of  the  season.  It 
is  not  uncommon  to  secure  from  five  to  six  tons  per  acre  where  the 
season  will  permit. 

2.  Alfalfa  has  the  power  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere  and 
fix  it  in  the  soil.  Nitrogen  being  absolutely  necessary  to  plant  growth 
and  being  expensive  in  the  commercial  form,  this  valuable  plant  has 
proven  a  great  boon  to  farmers,  in  that  nitrogen  can  be  secured  and 
made  available  without  cost. 

3.  Alfalfa  as  a  feed  is  extremely  rich  in  nitrogen,  an  element  neces- 
sary to  promote  a  rapid  growth  of  animals.  When  mixed  with  carbo- 
hydrates in  the  right  proportion,  its  value  as  a  feed  is  greatly  increased. 
As  a  pasture  for  hogs  and  dairy  cows  it  has  no  equal. 


4.  Alfalfa  has  a  splendid  effect  upon  the  physical  condition  of  the 
soil.  This  is  due  to  its  large,  abundant  and  extensive  roots.  The  roots 
grow  to  a  depth  of  from  five  to  sixteen  feet  if  they  are  not  hindered  by 
standing  water.  They  improve  the  physical  condition  by  loosening 
the  soil,  thereby  admitting  water  and  air.  They  improve  the  chemi- 
cal condition  by  the  formation  of  humus  resulting  from  the  decaying 
of  the  roots.  The  humus  thus  formed,  together  with  the  air  and  water 
combines  with  other  elements  in  the  deeper  subsoils  rendering  them 
soluble.  Such  compounds  are  then  carried  to  the  seed-bed  by  capillary 
attraction.  This  accounts  for  the  increased  yield  which  the  farmer  is 
sure  to  secure  from  any  crop  planted  where  alfalfa  has  been  grown. 

When  to  Sow 

Young  alfalfa  will  not  tolerate  weeds,  hence  the  seed-bed  should 
be  prepared  and  thoroughly  cultivated  until  all  weeds  are  thoroughly 
destroyed  before  the  alfalfa  is  sown.  If  it  is  sown  in  the  spring,  the 
ground  should  be  plowed  early  in  the  fall  and  disced  or  cultivated  from 
time  to  time  until  winter,  and  again  disced  and  cultivated  in  the  spring, 
insuring  the  destruction  of  all  weeds  and  grass.  If  the  winters  are 
not  too  severe,  a  good  stand  can  be  secured  by  sowing  the  latter  part  of 
August.  The  ground  should  be  plowed  in  the  spring  and  cultivated  at 
intervals  during  the  summer.  The  summer  cultivation  serves  a  double 
purpose,  namely,  water  is  conserved  and  weeds  are  killed.  It  is  a 
good  plan  the  first  year  to  leave  the  last  cutting  on  the  ground  as  a 
protection  against  freezing. 

Amount  of  Seed  to  Sow 

The  amount  of  seed  to  sow  per  acre  ranges  from  ten  to  twenty 
pounds.  If  drilled  it  does  not  require  as  much  as  when  sown  broadcast. 
The  seed-bed  should  be  made  extremely  mellow  and  after  the  seeds  are 
sown  they  should  be  immediately  covered  by  harrowing  very  lightly 
and  subsequently  by  running  over  the  ground  with  the  corrugated 
roller.  If  the  sun  is  extremely  hot  and  the  seeds  are  not  covered,  their 
vitality  is  greatly  weakened.  Alfalfa  does  not  do  well  if  covered  too 
deeply. 

Bacteria 

When  the  ground  is  not  inoculated  naturally,  the  bacteria  must  be 
provided,  otherwise  the  plant  will  not  thrive.  This  can  be  done  by 
sowing  on  the  ground,  after  it  is  thoroughly  prepared,  soil  from  an  old 
alfalfa  fi^ld  or  soil  where  wild  sweet  clover  has  grown.  The  wild  sweet 
clover  (melilotus  alba)  grows  in  most  sections  of  the  country  along  the 
fences  and  the  roots  are  usually  covered  with  nodules  containing  bac- 
teria. These  bacteria  are  identical  with  those  found  on  alfalfa  roots. 
It  is  not  a  bad  plan  in  securing  soil  from  the  wild  sweet  clover  beds,  to 


dig  up  with  the  soil  the  roots,  place  them  in  the  manure  spreader  and 
spread  as  evenly  as  possible.  Dirt  containing  bacteria  should  be  sown 
either  early  in  the  morning,  late  at  night  or  during  cloudy  weather,  for 
the  reason,  that  a  hot  sun  seems  to  destroy  the  life  of  the  micro-organisms. 
The  German-American  Nitragin  Company  of  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin, 
is  recommending  a  preparation  which  is  claimed  to  inoculate  the  seed. 
This  fall  the  writer  planted  twelve  acres  inoculated  with  this  prepa- 
ration. A  splendid  stand  was  made,  but  the  final  results  will  not  be 
known  until  next  summer. 

Instances  are  reported  east  of  the  Missouri  river  where  artificial 
inoculation  has  not  been  resorted  to,  and  the  following  year  nodules 
were  found  on  the  roots  of  the  plants.  This  can  be  accounted  for 
only  by  presuming  that  the  seed  planted  had  in  some  way  become 
inoculated. 

Cultivation 

Alfalfa  should  be  cultivated,  first  to  remove  weeds  that  may  be  grow- 
ing between  the  plants,  second  to  loosen  the  compact  soil  about  the 
roots,  and  third  to  break  up  crowns,  thereby  thickening  the  stand. 


The  Alfalfa  Cultivator  ..  This  Implement  Breaks  Up  the  Crowns,  Stimulates  the  Growth 
of  Plants,  Removes  Weeds  and  Thickens  the  Growth 

The  farmer  need  have  no  fear  of  destroying  his  crop  by  cultivating 
too  much.  If  he  will  use  the  alfalfa  cultivator,  tearing  up  the  crowns 
and  roots  until  it  has  the  appearance  of  a  plowed  field,  he  will  do  no 
harm,  but  on  the  contrary  will  increase  the  stand  very  materially. 


It  is  safe  to  say  that  ninety-eight  per  cent  of  all  the  failures  to  raise 
alfalfa  is  due  to  neglecting  some  of  the  essential  features  we  have  men- 
tioned, namely,  the  lack  of  lime,  a  poor  seed-bed,  failing  to  inoculate  the 
soil,  or  because  of  sowing  at  the  wrong  time.  If  all  of  the  requirements 
are  religiously  complied  with,  there  will  be  few  failures  recorded. 

The  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents  in  alfalfa  are 
as   follows : 


Total 
Dry 

Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 
100  Pounds 

in 

Fertilizing  Constituents  in 
1000  Pounds 

in  100 
Pounds 

Crude           Carbo- 
Protein    ,    Hydrates 

Fat 

Phosphoric 
Nitrogen          Acid 

Potash 

93.6 

11.7      1       40.9 

1.0 

26.1      1         6.1 

17.9 

CLOVER 

THE  production  of  clover  and  the  utilization  of  barnyard  manure,  is 
and  has  been  the  foundation  of  agriculture  since  man  first  began 
to  intelligently  till  the  soil.  Clover  and  manures  made  the  fields  of 
ancient  countries  fertile  before  the  Christian  Era,  and  to  their  use  the 
richness  of  farms  in  our  eastern  and  central  states,  is  due.  In  western 
states,  where  alfalfa  is  grown,  clover  is  not  made  a  feature,  and  in  other 
sections  where  the  plant  is  not  being  successfully  raised,  other  legumes 
such  as  cow  peas,  soy  beans  and  vetch  take  its  place. 

The  value  of  clover,  like  other  legumes,  is  because  it  possesses  the 
power  to  absorb  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  make  it  available,  not  only 
as  a  plant  food  in  the  soil,  but  in  its  own  substance  which  is  used  for 
stock  feed.  Were  it  not  for  legumes,  the  nitrogen  content  of  our 
soils  would  soon  become  exhausted.  We  must  not  lose  sight,  however, 
of  the  necessity  of  an  abundance  of  live  humus  in  the  soil,  which  can 
be  maintained  by  applying  barnyard  manure,  for  organic  matter  is 
the  substance  which  holds  the  nitrogen  in  the  soil  until  it  has  been 
utilized  by  the  growing  plant.  In  fact  clover  will  not  grow  in  soil  de- 
void of  humus. 

During  recent  years  many  complaints  have  been  made  that  it  is 
very  difficult  to  secure  a  stand  of  clover.  It  is  said,  the  soil  is  clover 
sick,  that  it  has  exhausted  the  soil  of  some  of  the  inorganic  plant  food 
elements,  that  the  winters  are  too  severe,  etc.  Undoubtedly  there  is 
some  merit  in  all  of  the  reasons  given,  but  regardless  of  the  many  fail- 
ures, clover  can  be  grown  as  successfully  today  as  when  our  soils  were 
new,  if  the  essential  requirements  of  the  plant  are  provided. 

166 


Requirements — uoil 

Clover  does  not  do  well  on  light,  sandy  or  gravel  soil,  nor  on  thin  clay 
soil.  The  best  results  are  obtained  in  deep  heavy  clay  or  sandy  loams 
where  the  water  line  is  not  too  near  the  surface.  If  the  soil  contains 
too  much  clay,  the  plant  will  die  in  the  early  spring  w^hen  the  ground 
thaws  and  freezes,  causing  a  heaving  which  tends  to  break  the  tap  root 
and   other   deep   roots. 

Seed-Bed 

The  seed-bed  should  be  deep,  mellow  and  free  of  lumps. 

Roots 

Clover  roots  grow  deep,  hence  during  their  early  life  the  little  deli- 
cate roots  should  have  a  deep  mellow  home  which  will  permit  them  to 
penetrate  early  into  the  deeper  subsoils.  If  the  subsoil  is  extremely 
compact  or  a  hard-pan  exists,  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  subsoil  plow. 

Clover  roots,  or  in  other  words  the  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria 
which  are  attached  to  the  roots,  require  atmospheric  oxygen,  hence 
the  soil  should  be  drained  in  order  to  admit  air.  Again,  clover  will 
absolutely  fail  if  there  is  any  considerable  proportion  of  free  acid  in  the 
soil,  or,  in  other  words,  if  the  soil  is  sour.  A  large  per  cent  of  the 
failures  to  grow  clover  in  old  soils  is  undoubtedly  due  to  acidity  and  a 
lack  of  drainage. 

Acid  Test 

The  farmer  can  determine  whether  or  not  his  soil  is  acid  by  making 
the  litmus  paper  test,  or  a  better  plan  is  to  select  two  plots  about 
twenty  feet  square  adjoining.  To  one  plot  apply  twenty-five  or  thirty 
pounds  of  air-slaked  or  hydrated  lime  and  disc  in  deep.  Then  apply 
manure  or  any  fertilizer  to  both  plots  and  plant  to  ordinary  table  beets. 
If  lime  is  required  the  plot  which  has  been  limed  will  produce  the  largest 
crop. 

Lime  Needed 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  most  of  our  lands  in  the  corn  belt  need  lime  to 
successfully  grow  clover.  While  the  amount  required  varies,  one  or 
two  tons  per  acre  of  the  raw  limestone  finely  ground  will  not  be  too 
much. 

Bacteria 

Clover  will  not  thrive  if  sown  on  ground  which  is  not  inoculated 
with  a  bacteria  peculiar  to  clover.  Years  ago  it  was  thought  that  all 
of  the  eastern  and  central  lands  were  naturally  inoculated,  but  recently 
it  has  been  determined  that  it  is  necessary  to  reinoculate  in  some  locali- 
ties in  order  to  secure  a  stand. 

167 


168 


Fertilizers 

Clover  requires  a  rich  soil,  in  other  words  the  soil  must  contain  a 
sufficient  amount  of  organic  matter  carrying  nitrogen  to  give  the  roots 
a  start  until  they  have  attained  a  sufficient  size  to  absorb  nitrogen  from 
the  air  to  supply  its  needs.  It  is  a  mistake  to  think  that  clover  can  be 
started  successfully  in  soil  not  containing  nitrogen  and  organic  matter. 
Clover  also  requires  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Most  soils  contain 
large  quantities  of  potash  which  can  easily  be  made  available  by 
applying  a  little  lime.  Phosphoric  acid  can  be  supplied  by  using  barn- 
yard manure.  If  manure  cannot  be  secured,  it  will  then  be  necessary 
to  supply  acid  phosphate  or  raw  rock  phosphate.  If  the  raw  rock 
phosphate  is  used  it  must  be  either  plowed  under  with  a  heavy  green 
crop  or  in  a  manure  compost,  otherwise  it  will  be  of  no  benefit. 

Winter-Killing 

Top  dressing  clover  with  barnyard  manure  or  straw  is  a  safeguard 
against  winter-killing.  The  manure  should  be  evenly  applied  with  a 
manure  spreader.  If  spread  with  a  hand  fork,  unless  great  care  is 
taken,  many  places  will  not  be  covered  and  others  will  receive  too  much, 
which,  if  not  removed  early  in  the  spring,  will  cause  the  plants  to  die 
from  smothering.  '*^he  dressing  not  only  protects  the  plant,  but  fur- 
nishes a  rich  mulch  which  is  beneficial  in  many  ways.  Straw  does 
nearly  as  well  as  manure.  If,  however,  a  great  amount  is  put  on,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  run  a  rake  over  in  the  spring  for  the  purpose  of 
removing  the  larger  bunches  which,  like  manure,  might,  if  very  com- 
pact injure  the  growing  plants. 

Seeding 

The  time  to  seed  depends  upon  the  locality.  In  the  clover  states 
it  is  customary  to  sow  in  the  spring  with  a  nurse  crop.  Winter  wheat 
and  other  grains  sown  in  the  fall  should  be  seeded  early  in  the  spring. 
Sometimes  it  is  advisable  to  run  over  the  field  with  a  peg  tooth  harrow 
with  the  teeth  set  slanting  before  the  clover  is  sown.  If  the  ground 
is  not  too  wet,  a  corrugated  roller  following  the  seeding,  not  only  packs 
the  dirt  around  the  roots  of  the  grain,  but  covers  the  clover  or  presses 
it  into  the  soil  where  it  germinates  .quickly.  As  a  rule  it  is  not  advisable 
to  sow  clover  on  spring  plowing  because  of  its  extreme  looseness.  It 
can  be  done  safely,  however,  if  the  ground  is  made  compact  and  rolled 
with  a  heavy  roller  after  the  seed  has  been  sown.  The  writer  has 
secured  a  splendid  catch  by  using  the  roller  on  the  grain  after  it  was 
sown,  then  distributing  the  clover  seed  and  subsequently  harrowing 
it  very  lightly. 

On  lands  that  are  somewhat  depleted,  or  in  other  words,  do  not 
contain  a  sufficient  amount  of  active  fertility  to  support  both  a  grain 

169 


and  clover  crop,  a  good  stand  can  be  secured  by  sowing  clover  alone. 
The  ground  should  be  plowed  deep  during  the  fall  and  the  seed  sown  as 
early  as  possible  in  the  spring.  Unless  the  early  summer  is  very  dry 
a  good  crop  can  be  secured  the  first  season. 

Clover  seed  should  be  planted  if  possible  in  moist  soil  from  one-half 
to  an  inch  deep. 

Varieties 

The  most  common  varieties  are  Red  Clover,  Crimson  Clover,  Mam- 
moth and  Alsike. 

Common  Red  Clover 

has  been  a  favorite  for  many  generations.  Because  of  its  extensive 
root  system,  it  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  humus  and  nitrogen  in 
addition  to  greatly  improving  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  The 
roots  loosen  compact  earth  making  it  more  permeable  and  very  easy 
to  till. 

After  clover  has  been  grown  on  land,  water  and  air  are  more  freely 
admitted  and  the  roots  of  other  crops  penetrate  deeper.  If  conditions 
are  favorable,  red  clover  produces  two  good  crops  in  a  season  and  in 
some  localities  three.  The  second  crop  is  usually  cut  for  seed.  If  the 
farmer  will  use  a  header  in  harvesting  clover  for  seed,  he  can  then  plow 
under  all  of  the  plant  food  elements  consumed  in  making  the  plant 
except  a  very  small  per  cent  in  the  heads.  If  the  clover  hulls  are  spread 
on  land,  they  not  only  fertilize  the  soil  but  inoculate  it  with  the 
required  bacteria.  Quite  often  it  has  been  found  that  one  field  on  a 
farm  will  contain  the  required  bacteria,  while  another  field  is  barren. 

Amount  of  Seed  to  Sow 

It  requires  about  fifteen  pounds  of  seed  to  sow  one  acre  broadcast. 
If  drilled  a  less  amount  is  sufficient.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  test  the  seed 
before  it  is  sown.  If  a  hundred  grains  are  taken  indiscriminately  and 
tested,  by  knowing  the  number  which  germinates,  it  can  be  easily  deter- 
mined whether  or  not  the  amount  as  stated  should  be  increased  or 
decreased. 

Mammoth  Clover 

This  variety  resembles  red  clover,  except  it  is  coarser  and  yields 
heavier.  It  is  better  adapted  to  wet  lands  than  the  red  variety.  The 
Mammoth  blossoms  later  than  the  red,  hence  it  is  better  to  mix  with 
timothy  and  other  grasses  than  varieties  which  blossom  earlier.  On 
account  of  the  heavy  growth  it  makes,  the  second  crop  is  often  used 
for  green  manuring.  If  the  second  crop  is  very  heavy  and  the  land  is 
deficient  in  phosphorus,  the  soil  will  be  greatly  improved  by  distrib- 
uting four  or  five  hundred  pounds  of  raw  rock  phosphate  per  acre  before 
the  crop  is  plowed  under.     The  process  of  decomposition  which  takes 


place  causes  a  small  per  cent  of  the  phosphorus  in  the  raw  rock  to 
become  available  the  following  year. 

Crimson  Clover 

Crimson  clover  is  becoming  a  favorite  in  some  of  the  eastern  and 
southern  states.  While  it  is  regarded  as  a  cool  weather  plant,  it  will 
hardly  stand  the  cold  winters  of  the  north.  It  is  often  planted  as  a 
catch  crop  after  grains,  but  like  other  clovers,  it  requires  a  good  seed- 
bed, plenty  of  humus  and  plant  food,  especially  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash.  This  variety  excels  all  others  for  grazing  purposes  for  the 
reason  that  it  remains  green  very  late  in  the  fall  and  starts  to  grow  in 
the  spring  very  early.  It  makes  a  splendid  fertilizing  crop  if  sown 
between  the  rows  of  corn  after  the  last  cultivation. 

Alsike 

This  variety  is  more  hardy  than  any  of  the  others  mentioned.  It 
rarely  winter-kills  even  in  the  extreme  north.  Alsike  does  not  stand 
up  well,  but  is  inclined  to  creep,  hence  it  is  better  to  plant  with  some 
other  plant  that  does  stand  up  well  such  as  timothy  or  some  of  the 
grains.  It  does  much  better  on  low  wet  lands  than  other  varieties 
but  not  so  well  on  uplands.  Alsike  seeds  are  about  one-half  the  size 
of  the  other  varieties,  hence  it  requires  only  about  ten  pounds  to  sow 
an   acre. 

Burr  Clover 

Burr  clover  is  grown  in  the  south  very  extensively  as  a  fertilizer 
and  soil  improver.  It  is  said  to  be  superior  to  any  of  the  legumes  as  a 
nitrogen-fixing  plant.  The  burr-like  seeds  carry  with  them  the  bacteria 
for  the  inoculation  of  the  soil  and  it  is  believed  that  the  bacteria  are 
identical  with  those  belonging  to  alfalfa.  This  variety  does  not  do 
well  in  the  north.  In  a  medium  latitude,  however,  it  can  be  sown  on 
land  intended  for  alfalfa  and  is  very  beneficial  on  account  of  its  ability 
to  inoculate  the  soil. 

Lespedeza 

Lespedeza  or  Japanese  clover  is  a  legume  which  was  introduced  into 
the  United  States  from  Asia  a  few  years  before  the  Civil  War.  It  is 
not  a  northern  clover,  but  is  grown  very  successfully  south  of  an  imagi- 
nary line  from  New  Jersey  to  southern  Kansas. 

Lespedeza  is  a  summer  annual,  requiring  fromearlj^  in  the  spring  until 
September  to  mature.  As  a  dry  stock  feed,  it  is  equal  to  alfalfa  and 
for  a  pasture,  when  mixed  with  Bermuda  grass  or  red  top,  it  has  no 
superior.  As  a  hog  pasture  it  is  more  enduring  and  more  nutritious 
than  either  the  cow  pea  or  vetch.  When  mixed  with  other  grasses  for 
either  pasture  or  hay,  it  necessarily  dies  in  winter  but  seeds  itself, 
coming  up  early  in  the  spring. 

171 


It  is  customary  for  the  farmers  in  the  south  in  cutting  Lespedeza  for 
hay  to  leave  now  and  then  a  small  strip  for  the  purpose  of  securing  seed. 
The  seed  being  light,  it  blows  over  the  ground  thereby  furnishing  a 
sufficient  amount  of  seed  to  make  the  crop  the  following  year.  If  the 
hay  is  fed  to  stock,  there  is  usually  enough  seed  in  the  manure  to  re-seed 
a  new  field  if  the  manure  is  scattered  on  the  ground. 

Rotation 

A  good  rotation  is  cotton,  corn,  oats  and  Lespedeza,  or  corn,  oats  and 
Lespedeza.  It  has  been  repeatedly  demonstrated  that  if  this  legume  is 
grown  in  any  kind  of  a  rotation,  or  even  alternated  with  any  crop  that 
it  very  materially  increases  the  crop  following  Lespedeza. 

Harvesting 

If  intended  for  hay  it  should  be  cut  just  as  it  is  coming  into  blossom. 
If  cut  just  before  the  blossoms  come,  a  second  crop  will  mature  for 
seed.  When  harvesting  for  seed  it  should  be  raked  into  windrows  or 
made  into  small  cocks  as  soon  as  it  is  cut.  If  raked  when  dry,  much 
of  the  seed  will  be  lost  by  shelling.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  rake  or  cock 
when  the  dew  is  on.  In  hauling  and  handling  great  care  must  be  taken 
or  a  large  per  cent  of  the  seed  will  be  lost.  It  is  always  a  good  plan  to 
use  a  tight  wagon  box  in  hauling  the  hay  to  the  thresher. 

Following  is  the  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents  of 
cured    clovers. 


Total 

Digestible  Nutrients  in 

Fertilizing  Constituents 

Dry 

Matter 

100  Pounds 

in 

I  1000  Pounds 

m 

Crude 

Carbo- 

Nitro- 

Phos- 

100 
Pounds 

Protein 

hy- 
drates 

Fat 

gen 

phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Red  Clover    _ 

84.7 

7.1 

37.8 

1.8 

19.7 

5.5 

18.7 

Mammoth  _ 

78.8 

6.2 

34.7 

2.1 

17.1 

5.2 

11.6 

Crimson 

90.4 

10.5 

34.9 

1.2 

24.3 

4.0 

13.1 

Alsike 

90.3 

8.4 

39.7 

1.1 

20.5 

5.0 

13.9 

Burr  Clover 

91.0 

8.2 

39.0 

2.1 

21.8 



Lespedeza . 

89.0 

9.1 

37.7 

1.4 

22.1 

... 



172 


cow  PEAS 

THE  cow  pea  is  a  legume  which  can  be  grown  in  any  soil  or  in  any 
location  where  corn  can  be  produced.  If  the  season  is  short  and  the 
growth  is  rank,  the  berry  will  not  mature.  In  nutrients  it  is  almost 
equal  to  alfalfa,  but  is  not  relished  by  stock  as  well  on  account  of  the 
stems  being  more  woody,  until  a  taste  has  been  acquired. 

Cow  peas  are  very  beneficial  in  any  rotation,  always  increasing  the 
following  crop.  Like  clover  and  alfalfa,  it  improves  the  soil  both  chemic- 
ally and  physically.  The  plant  gathers  nitrogen  from  the  air,  the  roots 
grow  deep  and  are  abundant,  and  when  the  crop  or  any  part  of  it  is 
plowed  under,  it  always  adds  greatly  to  the  organic  content  of  the  soil. 

Uses 

The  cow  pea  is  splendid  for  soiling  and  silage.  It  should  not  be  placed 
in  the  silo  alone,  but  with  corn.  If  the  farmer  exercises  great  care  and 
has  a  knowledge  of  the  nutritive  value  of  peas  and  corn,  he  can  make  a 
splendid  balanced  ration  as  he  fills  his  silo.  A  good  plan  is  to  drill  the 
peas  a  few  inches  from  the  hill  after  the  last  cultivation  of  corn.  The 
vines  will  cling  to  the  stalks  and  can  be  harvested  with  the  corn  when 
the  silo  is  being  filled.  Cow  peas  also  make  an  excellent  pasture  for 
hogs.     Their  value  is  increased  if  sown  with  rape  or  oats. 

When  to  Plant 

They  can  be  planted  as  a  catch  crop  after  grain  and  used  for  late 
pasturing  or  plowed  under.  Or  they  can  be  planted  in  the  spring  about 
the  time  corn  is  planted  if  intended  for  hay  or  seed.  They  should  not, 
however,  be  planted  until  after  the  ground  is  at  least  above  forty-five 
degrees  Fahrenheit,  for  the  reason  that  they  will  rot  in  cold  damp 
ground.  They  can  be  sown  broadcast  or  drilled.  If  intended  for  seed 
it  is  advisable  to  drill  far  enough  apart  to  permit  of  cultivation. 
They  germinate  very  rapidly  in  a  warm,  moist,  mellow  soil  and  in  rich 
ground  make  a  remarkable  growth. 

Amount  to  Sow 

When  sown  broadcast  one  and  one-half  bushels  is  sufficient,  but  if 
drilled  one  bushel  will  make  a  splendid  stand. 

Varieties 

The  Whippoorwill  is  probably  the  best  variety  to  plant  in  the  north- 
ern states.  The  growth  is  rank  and  rapid.  They  should,  however, 
be  planted  with  corn  or  sorghum  if  intended  for  pasture.  Mount  Olive, 
Warrens,  Hybrid,  New  Era,  Black  Eye  and  Hammond's  Black  are  all 
good   varieties. 

173 


174 


Following  is  the  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents  of 
the  cow  pea. 


Total 

Dry 

Matter 

in 

100 

Pounds 

Digestible  Nutrients         '      Fertilizing  Constituents 
in  100  Pounds                           in  1000  Pounds 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
Hy- 

drates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Cow  Peas 
Cow  Pea  Hay 

85.4 
89.5 

16.8 
5.8 

54.9 
39.3 

1.1 
1.3 

i4'3 

'5.2 

U.7 

SOY  BEANS 

THIS  legume  can  be  successfully  grown  in  a  northern  climate  as  well 
as  in  the  south.  Where  the  season  is  short  the  bean  will  not  mature. 
Unlike  the  cow  pea,  it  has  no  vine  but  one  strong  stem  with  many 
branches.  Like  the  pea,  it  is  a  nitrogen  gatherer.  Hence  its  great 
value  as  a  green  manure  to  build  up  depleted  land. 

The  soy  bean  makes  a  splendid  pasture  for  pigs  and  calves.  Pigs 
given  one-fourth  ration  of  corn  and  a  soy  bean  pasture,  will  make  a 
remarkable  growth.  One  peck  per  acre  of  oats  sown  with  the  beans 
is  very  desirable. 

On  account  of  the  woody  stem,  it  is  not  as  desirable  as  alfalfa  for 
hay,  but  if  cut  when  the  pods  are  half  grown,  it  makes  a  splendid  soiling 
crop.  If  used  for  silage,  it  should  be  placed  in  the  silo  with  corn,  alter- 
nating the  layers  and  using  one  ton  of  bean  forage  to  seven  tons  of  corn. 

Land  that  will  grow  corn  is  adapted  for  beans.  Like  corn,  the  richer 
the  land  the  larger  will  be  the  crop.  They  should  be  planted  about 
the  same  time  as  corn,  but  not  in  hills.  The  best  plan  is  to  sow  broad- 
cast with  a  seeder,  or  drill  with  an  ordinary  grain  drill. 

The  depth  to  plant  varies  according  to  conditions.  In  a  heavy  wet 
soil  shallow  planting  is  best,  but  in  a  light  dry  soil  three  or  four  inches  is 
not  too  deep.  One  and  one-half  bushels  will  plant  an  acre  if  broad- 
casted or  drilled,  but  if  planted  for  the  seed  in  hills,  or  drilled  four  or 
five  inches  apart,  three  pecks  is  sufficient.  If  planted  early  in  cold  wet 
ground,  the  seed  will  rot. 

Varieties 

There  are  several  varieties,  but  the  Mammoth  Yellow  is  the  most 
desirable  for  northern  sections.  The  Early  Yellow,  Buckshot,  Guelph, 
called  the  medium  green,  Butterball,  Kingston  and  Ogema  do  well  in 
most  sections  of  the  United  States. 

175 


S3 

SO 
O     IS 


a 


17G 


Following  is  the  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents  of 
the  soy   bean. 


Total 

Dry 

Matter 

in 

100 

Pounds 

Digestible  Nutrients              Fertilizing  Constituents 
in  100  Pounds                            in  1000  Pounds 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 

hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Soy  Beans__. 
Soy  BeanHay 

88.3 
88.2 

29.1 
10.6 

23.3 
40.9 

14.6 
1.2 

53.6 
23.8 

10.4 

12.6 

VELVET  BEAN 

THIS  legume  is  grown  only  in  the  extreme  southern  states.  1 1  is  a  great 
climber  and  a  great  producer  of  hay.  It  is  very  valuable  as  a  stock 
feed  on  account  of  the  protein  it  contains,  but  it  should  be  fed  with 
corn  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results.  In  open  fields  it  makes  an 
excellent  cover  crop  eradicating  effectually  troublesome  weeds.  Like 
other  legumes  it  is  of  great  importance  as  a  soil  improver  having  the 
power  to  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air.  The  larger  per  cent,  however, 
of  nitrogen  is  contained  in  the  vines,  leaves  and  seeds,  hence  in  order  to 
secure  the  gi^eatest  benefit  as  a  fertilizer  the  crop  should  be  plowed 
under.  It  is  estimated  that  a  good  crop  plowed  under  furnishes  as 
much  nitrogen  to  the  soil  as  a  ton  of  cotton-seed  meal.  A  ton 
of  beans  in  the  pod  contains  fifty-four  and  eight-tenths  pounds  of 
nitrogen,  thirty-one  and  eight-tenths  pounds  of  potash  and  thirteen 
and  eight-tenths  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  having  a  fertilizing  value 
of  ten  or  eleven  dollars.  The  hulls  contain  a  much  higher  percentage 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  than  the  berries.  In  Florida  it  is 
reported  that  the  oat  crop  is  increased  four-fold  when  grown  in 
rotation  with  velvet  beans.  In  Alabama  it  doubles  the  sorghum  crop. 
As  a  forage  crop  in  the  south  it  has  four  times  the  value  of  German 
millet. 

The  Time  to  Plant 

depends  upon  the  season  and  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  crop.  The 
beans  should  be  planted  ten  or  fifteen  inches  apart  in  the  drill  and  the 
rows  four  feet  apart  or  at  the  rate  of  about  a  peck  of  seed  per  acre.  The 
better  plan,  however,  is  to  plant  in  rows  six  or  eight  feet  apart,  alter- 
nating with  rows  of  corn  or  sorghum,  to  help  support  the  vines. 

At  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station  a  yield  of  7,300  pounds  of  hay 
per  acre  was  obtained  by  planting  in  drills  two  feet  apart  while  the  best 
yield  obtained  by  broadcasting  was  5,360  pounds. 

177 


It  has  been  demonstrated  in  Florida  that  commercial  fertilizers  were 
of  no  value,  or  at  least  they  did  not  make  an  increase  great  enough  to 
pay  for  the  fertilizer  used.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  necessary 
to  inoculate  the  ground  before  the  beans  are  planted.  This  is  done  by 
distributing  soil  from  an  old  field. 

The  velvet  bean  being  a  highly  nitrogenous  feed,  should  not  be  fed 
alone,  as  such  feeding  has  been  reported,  according  to  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  as  causing  abortion  among  cattle 
and  hogs,  and  blind  staggers  among  horses.  The  hay  when  fed  exclu- 
sively to  horses  is  likely  to  cause  kidney  trouble,  but  this  danger  can 
be  overcome  by  mixture  with  an  equal  amount  of  crab  grass  hay  or  if 
fed  with  the  proper  amount  of  corn  the  bad  effects  are  obviated  and  the 
great  feeding  value  of  the  bean  is  secured. 

Following  is  the  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents  of 
the  velvet  bean. 


Total  Dry 
Matter 
in  100 
Pounds 

Digestible  Nutrients  in 
100  Pounds 

Fertilizing  Constituents  in 
1000  Pounds 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Phos- 
Nitrogen         phoric 
j      Acid 

Potash 

90.0 

9.6 

52.5 

1.4 

22.4 



VETCH 


THIS  legume,  being  hardy,  can  be  grown  in  nearly  every  section  of 
the  United  States  and  in  any  type  of  fertile  soil.  The  variety  known 
as  the  hairy  vetch  seems  to  be  a  favorite.  On  account  of  the  way  it 
sprawls  on  the  ground  when  growing,  it  should  be  sown  with  oats, 
wheat  or  barley,  otherwise  it  will  become  so  matted  that  it  is  difficult 
to  harvest.  There  are  two  varieties,  i.e.,  spring  and  winter.  The  win- 
ter variety  is  grown  only  in  the  southern  states.  It  not  only  makes  an 
excellent  feed  for  live-stock,  but  is  a  splendid  soil  improver. 

The  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  reports  that  in 
1898  six  pecks  of  seed  were  sown  per  acre  producing  July  15th  11,504 
pounds  of  green  forage  and  2,980  pounds  of  air-dried  substance,  and 
again  August  13th  6,500  pounds  of  green  forage  and  1,287  pounds  of 
dry  substance.  The  same  plot  was  cut  again  in  June  1899  producing 
1,250  pounds  of  green  forage. 

178 


Following  is  the   digestible    nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents  of 
vetch. 


Total  Dry 
Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 
in  100  Pounds 

Fertilizing  Constituents 
in  1000  Pounds 

in  100 
Pounds 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Nitrogen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

88.7 

11.9 

40.7 

1.6 

27.2 

9.7 

24.4 

BEGGAR  WEED 


THIS  is  another  legume  grown  only  in  the  south.  It  flourishes  well 
on  the  poorest  land  and  in  rich  soil  it  grows  to  a  height  of  from  six  to 
ten  feet  and  will  make  five  or  six  tons  of  excellent  hay  per  acre.  It  is 
used  for  feed  and  as  a  soil  improver.  If  grown  in  rotation  with  cotton 
and  corn,  it  is  said  to  double  the  crops. 

Following  is  the  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents  of 
the  beggar  weed. 


Total  Dry 
Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 
in  100  Pounds 

Fertilizing  Constituents 
in  1000  Pounds 

in  100 
Pounds 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Phos- 
Nitrogen         phoric 

Acid 

1 

Potash 

90.8 

6.8 

42.8 

1.6                18.9 





Warning 

It  must  be  remembered  that  while  all  of  the  legumes  are  splendid 
feed  for  stock,  either  as  hay,  silage  or  pasture,  the  full  feeding  value 
cannot  be  secured  unless  the  required  amount  of  some  carbohydrate, 
preferably  Indian  corn  or  Kaffir  corn,  is  added  to  make  a  balanced 
ration.  We  must  not  forget  that  the  natural  laws  governing  growth 
are  exacting  and  we  cannot  disregard  them  if  we  are  to  secure  the  best 
results  from  feed.  The  farmer  must  also  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that 
legumes  will  not  thrive  nor  will  they  fulfill  the  object  for  which  they 
were  intended,  i.e.,  to  gather  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere,  unless  the 
soil  is  inoculated  with  the  bacteria  peculiar  to  the  legume.  If  the  soil 
is  not  naturally  inoculated,  the  bacteria  should  be  provided. 


GRASSES 

WE  will  not  attempt  to  enter  into  a  lengthy  discussion  of  grasses, 
but  simply  give  some  of  the  most   important   features    to   be 
observed  in  growing  them. 

To  successfully  grow  most  of  the  varieties  of  grasses,  five  essential 
features  must  be  observed. 

1.  Adaptation  to  soil  and  climate. 

2.  Character  of  the  seed-bed. 

3.  Fertility. 

4.  Seed. 

Adaptation  to  Soil  and  Climate 

It  is  just  as  useless  to  attempt  to  grow  grasses  as  it  is  cereals  or  any 
other  plants  not  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate  to  which  they  were 
evidently  intended.  Some  grasses  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  south- 
ern sections  and  will  perish  in  a  northern  latitude  and  vice  versa.  Some 
plants  demand  low  ground  and  a  large  amount  of  moisture  while  others 
will  thrive  only  in  semi-arid  sections.  The  rye  and  oat  grasses  grow 
profusely  in  drouth  stricken  regions  where  timothy  would  not  survive. 

Character  of  the  Seed-Bed 

Grasses  respond  to  a  well  made  seed-bed  and  an  abundance  of  fertility 
as  readily  as  do  cereals.  Poor  seed  and  neglect  result,  as  a  rule,  in  a 
deficient  crop  with  these  plants  as  it  does  with  corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
etc.,  hence,  in  growing  grasses  the  farmer  must  exercise  the  same  good 
judgment  that  is  required  to  produce  other  crops. 

Varieties 

The  grasses  which  are  the  most  useful  to  farmers  are  Timothy, 
Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  Redtop,  Orchard  Grass,  Brome  Grass,  Johnson 
Grass,  Western  Rye  Grass  and  Bermuda  Grass. 

Timothy 

This  grass  is  a  hardy  perennial  and  is  cultivated  more  generally  and 
is  more  valuable  than  any  of  the  other  varieties  for  hay. 

Soil 

It  is  adapted  to  a  great  variety  of  soils,  but  yields  most  abundantly 
on  rich  bottom  land.  It  does  fairly  well  on  clay  if  sufficient  moisture 
can  be  secured,  but  on  high  dry  sandy  soils  it  is  a  failure.  It  responds 
to  manure,  especially  when  top-dressed  with  a  well  rotted  manure  in 
the  fall.  Uses 

When  mixed  with  some  of  the  clovers,  it  makes  a  splendid  balanced 
ration  for  cows,  sheep  and  calves.     Clear  timothy  is  better  for  work 

ISO 


horses  than  when  mixed  with  clover  and  usually  brings  a  higher  price 
on    the    market. 

Seeding- 

Timothy  is  usually  seeded  with  winter  wheat  or  rye  early  in  the  fall. 
The  earlier  it  can  be  sown  the  less  is  the  danger  from  winter-killing. 
When  mixed  with  clover,  the  timothy  should  be  sown  in  the  fall  and 
the  clover  early  in  the  spring. 

Without  a  Nurse  Crop 

To  insure  a  good  stand  the  ground  should  be  plowed  in  the  fall  and 
subsequently  cultivated  from  time  to  time  to  insure  the  destruction  of 
weeds  and  seeded  without  a  nurse  crop. 

The  seed  can  be  sown  the  last  of  July,  in  August  or  as  late  as  the  first 
of  September.  Just  before  the  ground  freezes  it  should  have  a  thin 
coat  of  manure,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  roots  during  the  winter 
and  furnishing  a  rich  mulch  during  the  coming  season.  Fifteen  pounds 
of  good  clean  seed  is  sufficient  to  sow  an  acre.  If  clover  is  to  be  sown 
in  the  spring  with  the  timothy,  eight  or  ten  pounds  is  enough,  and  six  or 
seven  pounds  of  clover.  It  is  a  mistake  not  to  harrow  timothy  after  it  is 
sown.  The  seed-bed  should  be  made  mellow,  free  from  lumps  and  the 
seed  sufficiently  covered  with  moist  earth  to  insure  rapid  germination. 
After  the  seed  has  been  sown  and  lightly  harrowed  or  brushed,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  roll  with  a  corrugated  roller.  The  roller  not  only  crushes 
any  surface  lumps  that  may  exist,  but  it  packs  the  soil  around  the  seed. 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass  (Often  Called  June  Grass) 

This  grass  grows  more  generally  over  the  United  States  than  timothy. 
It  stands  first  as  a  pasture  grass  just  as  timothy  ranks  first  for  hay. 
Blue  grass  is  a  hardy  perennial.  If  left  undisturbed,  it  does  not  die ;  but 
on  the  contrary,  thickens  and  finally  drives  out  all  other  grasses  and 
weeds.  It  makes  a  very  desirable  sod  for  yards  and  a  splendid  pasture 
for  stock. 

Soil 

It  thrives  best  on  limestone  lands,  but  not  well  on  sandy  soils,  espe- 
cially if  the  season  is  dry.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  roots  do  not 
grow  deep.  While  it  will  dry  out  during  a  time  of  drouth,  and  have  the 
appearance  of  being  dead,  it  revives  very  quickly  after  a  rain.  It  is  the 
earliest  green  grass  in  the  spring  and  the  latest  in  the  fall. 

Seeding 

It  can  be  sown  with  a  nurse  crop  either  in  the  fall  or  spring  or  alone 
at  almost  any  season  of  the  year.  The  most  serious  obstacle  to  overcome 
in  making  a  good  stand  is  to  secure  good  seed.     Twenty-five  or  thirty 


pounds  will  seed  an  acre  if  the  seed  is  good,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  will  be  found 
that  a  large  per  cent  of  the  seed  will  not  germinate. 

Redtop 

This  grass  grows  very  generally  over  the  country. 

Soil 

While  it  is  best  adapted  to  wet  lands,  it  does  very  well  on  a  great 
variety  of  soils,  both  in  humid  sections  and  in  arid  countries. 

Uses 

Redtop  is  valuable  both  for  hay  and  pasture.  It  makes  an  extremely 
tough  sod  and  is  very  lasting. 

Orchard  Grass 

This  grass  is  noted  for  its  drouth-resisting  qualities.  It  starts  early 
in  the  spring  and  blooms  early. 

Uses 

It  is  useful  for  hay  and  pasture,  but  if  not  eaten  closely  or  as  fast  as  it 
grows,  it  is  shunned  by  stock,  for  it  loses  its  palatability  as  it  becomes 
older.     Unless  cut  for  hay  when  in  blossom,  it  becomes  very  woody. 

Seeding 

It  can  be  sown  with  a  nurse  crop  either  during  the  fall  or  spring,  or 
alone.  The  best  results  are  secured  when  sown  in  the  spring  and  culti- 
vated lightly  by  using  a  peg  tooth  harrow.  Twenty  to  thirty  pounds  is 
usually  sown  per  acre,  if  intended  for  hay.  If  the  object  is  to  secure 
seed,  a  less  amount  should  be  used. 

Brome  Grass 

This  grass  is  noted  for  its  ability  to  resist  drouth  and  extreme  cold. 
The  plant  has  a  very  deep  and  abundant  root  system,  and  requires  a 
fertile  soil. 

Uses 

It  is  said  to  be  more  valuable  for  pasture  than  for  hay.  In  nutrients, 
it  equals  timothy,  but  does  not  command  as  high  a  price  on  the  market. 

Harvesting 

It  should  be  harvested  for  seed  when  the  heads  have  assumed  a  deep, 
purplish  shade.  If  left  until  they  are  brown,  much  seed  will  be  lost  by 
shellmg.  It  is  customary  to  cut  with  a  binder  and  handle  like  grain. 
If  the  stubble  is  left  high,  the  undergrowth  can  be  mowed  for  hay  after 
the  seed  crop  has  been  removed. 


Seeding 

Thirty-five  or  forty  pounds  sown  with  a  nurse  crop  is  sufficient  to  seed 
an  acre.  The  best  results  are  obtained  when  sown  with  oats  or  barley. 
The  seed  should  be  covered  from  one-half  to  one  inch  in  depth. 

Johnson  Grass 

This  grass  has  its  virtues  and  its  faults.  It  is  adapted  only  to  a  warm 
climate.  It  can  be  cut  from  two  to  five  times  during  a  season  and  will 
yield  from  one  to  three  tons  per  acre  of  good  hay  at  each  cutting.  It  is  a 
splendid  soiling  crop,  but  should  not  be  pastured  too  closely.  The 
stems  grow  to  a  length  of  from  three  to  six  feet  long  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, but  in  very  rich,  moist  soil,  they  attain  a  much  greater  length. 
After  the  plant  is  well  established,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  eradicate  it. 
In  some  sections  of  the  south,  it  is  regarded  a  pest  because  of  its  per- 
sistent growth  and  tendency  to  spread. 

Johnson  grass  seed  resembles  flax  and  possesses  a  very  strong  vitality. 
Twenty-five  pounds  will  seed  an  acre.  It  can  be  sown  at  almost  any 
season  of  the  year. 

Rye  Grass 

Rye  grass,  or  bunch  grass,  grows  vigorously  from  the  middle  states 
into  Canada.  It  stands  cold  weather  better  than  any  of  the  grasses, 
and  it  excels  all  others  in  drouth-resisting  qualities.  It  grows  wild  on 
the  western  prairies  and  resembles  rye.  It  is  rich  in  nutrients  both  in 
the  green  and  dry  state,  whether  cut  or  standing.  In  the  north,  it  is  cul- 
tivated very  successfully.  This  grass  can  be  depended  upon  to  grow 
and  make  a  crop  where  other  varieties  fail.  About  fifteen  pounds  of 
seed  will  seed  an  acre. 

Bermuda  Grass 

This  grass  flourishes  in  tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries.  It  is  a 
creeping  perennial,  giving  off  a  root  at  every  joint  and  a  number  of 
leaves  also  grow  at  each  joint.  It  is  manifestly  a  grazing  grass,  but  is 
often  cut  for  hay.  It  makes  a  tough,  hardy  sod,  and  on  account  of  its 
long  surface  roots,  it  prevents  soil  from  washing.  On  account  of  con- 
taining a  high  per  cent  of  protein,  it  makes  a  valuable  feed.  It  should 
be  grown  with  other  grasses  which  contain  more  carbohydrates  in  order 
to  supply  a  balanced  ration.  Usually  when  a  new  crop  is  started,  it  is 
done  by  transplanting  the  roots. 

Quack  Grass 

This  grass  is  not  classed  among  the  desirables,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
has  a  very  unenviable  reputation.  It  does  not  seem  to  know  when  to 
quit.     When  once  started,  it  spreads,  and  its  creeping  roots  have  no 

183 


respect  for  other  crops,  but  seem  to  delight  in  being  monarch  of  every- 
thing in  sight. 

Quack  grass,  however,  has  two  redeeming  quahties.  It  makes  a  very- 
good  pasture  when  the  stems  are  young  and  tender,  and  it  serves  as  a 
splendid  soil  binder.  It  will  stop  hillsides  from  washing  and  gulleys 
from  deepening.    When  it  secures  a  grip  on  the  soil,  it  holds  fast. 

The  question  of  most  interest  to  the  farmer  is  not  how  to  grow  quack 
grass,  but  how  to  get  rid  of  it.  The  best  plan  is  to  plow  it  with  a  broad, 
sharp-shared  plow,  having  a  long,  slanting  moldboard.  It  should  be 
plowed  when  the  ground  is  dry  at  a  depth  of  not  more  than  three  inches. 
If  all  the  roots  are  cut  off  clean  and  the  slice  is  inverted,  during  the  heat 
of  summer,  the  hot  sun  will  kill  the  roots.  This  is  because  of  a  physio- 
logical dependence  between  the  roots  and  the  stems.  The  roots  depend 
upon  the  tops  for  their  sustenance,  and  if  they  are  cut  off,  the  roots  will 
perish.  If  in  plowing,  however,  a  few  roots  are  left  when  the  slice  is 
turned,  enough  nourishment  will  be  carried  down  and  distributed  to 
maintain  life  in  a  great  series  of  connecting  roots.  The  writer  has 
talked  with  farmers  who  have  plowed  it  under  and  claimed  the  plant 
would  not  die.  This  was  because  all  of  the  roots  were  not  severed.  The 
farmer  should  see  that  the  plowshare  is  broader  than  the  furrow  slice, 
and  that  it  is  very  sharp. 

Effect  of  Grasses  on  Soil 

Grasses  protect,  renew  and  build  up  soil.  Grasses  do  not  gather 
nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere  as  the  legumes  do,  but  nitrogen  in  the  soil 
is  stored  up  in  grass  roots  and  when  the  roots  decay,  forming  humus,  the 
nitrogen  is  available  for  succeeding  crops.  Other  elements  are  also 
formed  into  compounds  through  the  action  of  roots,  to  be  subsequently 
used  by  other  plants.  The  deeper  rooting  grasses  are  especially  useful 
in  making  available  such  elements  as  potash  and  phosphorus  that  exist 
in  the  deeper  subsoils.  Grass  roots  also  improve  the  physical  condition 
of  the  soil  by  making  it  more  permeable  and  friable. 

We  know  that  soil  becomes  weary  after  being  tilled  for  years,  and 
nothing  revives  its  latent  energies  more  effectually  than  to  give  it  a 
grass  vacation. 

Grasses  should  be  treated  fairly.  They  are  always  improved  by 
occasionally  giving  them  a  thin  coat  of  manure.  If  they  are  pastured 
too  closely,  those  having  bulbs  are  liable  to  be  injured  and  those  having 
very  shallow  roots  are  apt  to  be  pulled  out. 

It  is  always  a  good  plan  to  leave,  if  possible,  a  fair  growth  in  the  fall. 
Such  a  growth  not  only  protects  the  plant  during  the  severe  winter,  but 
forms  a  splendid  fertilizing  mulch. 

184 


MAKING  HAY 

MAKING  or  curing  hay  is  an  important  step  which  requires  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  plant  and  good  management.  Too  often,  after  the  crop 
is  grown,  a  large  per  cent  is  damaged  because  of  rains,  heavy  dews,  by 
being  exposed  for  a  long  time  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  or  to  mismanage- 
ment in  gathering.  Rains  and  dews  are  especially  detrimental  to 
legumes.  After  alfalfa  or  clover  has  been  wet,  even  slightly,  the  hay 
is  very  much  like  tea  leaves  after  they  have  been  steeped.  Mild  rains 
and  heavy  dews  do  not  affect  timothy  and  other  grasses  as  much  as 
the  legumes.  Hay  exposed  to  a  broiling  sun  for  a  day  or  more  not 
only  loses  its  appetizing  flavor,  but  many  of  the  leaves,  on  account  of 
their  being  dried  rapidly,  break  off  and  are  wasted.  A  hot  sun  will  dry 
and  crinkle  the  leaves  preventing  the  escape  of  moisture  from  the 
stems  which  should  take  place  through  the  leaves.  Moisture  thus 
retained  in  the  stems  when  placed  in  the  stack  or  mow,  will  mould.  Hay 
should  be  cured  and  not  sun-burned.  In  order  to  cure  hay,  it  should 
not  only  be  subjected  to  a  reasonable  amount  of  heat,  but  to  the  action 
of  the  air. 

The  old  plan  of  curing  hay  was  a  very  good  one,  but  it  entailed  losses 
and  unnecessary  expense.  After  cutting  the  hay  would  lie  in  the  swath 
until  it  was  dry.  It  was  then  raked  into  windrows  and  subsequently 
made  into  cocks  where  it  would  remain  until  cured.  The  modern  plan 
and  the  one  which  is  regarded  as  best  among  our  most  extensive  hay 
makers,  is  to  mow  the  grass  and  let  it  remain  until  it  is  thoroughly 
wilted,  but  not  dry.  If  the  crop  is  extremely  heavy,  a  tedder  should 
be  used  for  the  purpose  of  stirring  it  up  and  airing  it  thoroughly. 
Before  the  leaves  are  dried,  it  should  be  raked  into  windrows  with  a 
side-delivery  rake.  The  side  delivery  rake  is  far  preferable  to  the 
other  type.  The  direct  rake  does  not  ventilate  the  hay,  but  rather 
packs  it  together  and  leaves  it  in  a  compact  bunch  or  solid  windrow. 
The  side  delivery  rake  forms  a  roll  or  cylinder  through  which  the  air 
circulates  freely,  thereby  curing  the  hay  very  rapidly. 

It  has  been  fully  demonstrated  that  the  stems  of  hay  raked  with  the 
side  delivery  rake,  on  account  of  the  perfect  ventilation  it  receives  in 
the  windrows,  contain  fifty  per  cent  less  moisture  after  a  certain  period 
than  hay  formed  in  a  windrow  with  the  direct  rake.  It  has  also  been 
fully  demonstrated  that  when  the  hay  has  been  thoroughly  aired  both 
with  the.  tedder  and  with  the  side  delivery  rake,  it  is  in  better  con- 
dition to  go  into  the  stack  or  mow  than  when  raked  with  a  direct  rake 
after  it  is  apparently  dry  in  the  swath  and  subsequently  placed  in  the 
cock  for  a  period  of  two  days. 

After  the  hay  has  been  placed  in  the  cylindrical  windrow  it  is,  if 
the  weather  is  good  hay  weather,  about  ready  to  be  placed  in  the  stack. 

186 


186 


It  can  be  gathered  up  with  the  loader  or  with  the  sweep  rake  and 
conveyed  to  the  stacker.  Either  process  reduces  losses  to  a  minimum 
and  the  work  can  be  accomplished  very  economically. 

Baling  Hay 

Baling  hay  and  straw  is  being  practiced  by  the  farmers  very  gener- 
ally. They  find  that  it  not  only  saves  feed,  but  is  more  economically 
handled  than  in  bulk.  Baled  hay  does  not  require  nearly  as  much 
room  in  the  barn  as  when  loose  and  it  is  more  easily  handled  and  fed, 
and  makes  less  litter.  Since  straw  has  become  valuable,  many  farmers 
are  baling  it  as  soon  as  the  threshing  is  done.  They  find  that  they 
can  make  a  great  saving  in  the  material  as  well  as  in  the  handling.  In 
many  sections  it  is  safe  to  bale  hay  as  soon  as  it  is  cured  in  the  field. 
In  the  western  states,  where  alfalfa  is  grown  very  extensively,  farmers 
have  learned  that  by  using  the  side  delivery  rake,  they  can  cure  hay 
very  rapidly  on  account  of  the  clear  drying  atmosphere  and  bale  it 
immediately  without  danger  of  moulding.  In  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
Colorado,  and  other  states  where  wild  hay  is  grown  very  extensively,  it 
is  safe  to  bale  the  second  day  after  it  is  cut.  In  humid  sections  it  is  not 
advisable  to  bale  alfalfa  and  clover  or  timothy  and  clover  mixed,  on 
account  of  the  danger  of  there  being  too  much  moisture  in  the  stems, 
until  after  it  is  thoroughly  cured  in  the  stack.  It  is  not  advisable  to 
bale  stacked  hay  until  it  has  passed  through  the  sweat,  except  native 
prairie  hays. 

Capacity  of  Baler 

The  amount  that  can  be  baled  in  a  day  depends  entirely  upon  the 
size  and  power  of  the  machine  and  the  availability  of  the  material. 
When  a  horse-power  machine  is  used,  from  eight  to  twelve  tons  is 
considered  a  fair  day's  work,  but  with  the  motor-power  baler  from 
twenty  to  thirty  tons  of  hay  or  straw  can  be  baled  in  a  day. 


MILLETS 

MILLETS  are  grown  very  generally  throughout  the  United  States. 
They  are  adapted  to  any  climate  where  other  farm  crops  will 
grow  and  to  a  great  variety  of  soils.  In  rich  bottom  lands  the  millet 
grows  to  an  enormous  size. 

Varieties 

There  are  a  great  many  varieties,  but  the  most  important  ones  cul- 
tivated in  the  United  States  are  the  German  or  Golden  Millet,  Golden 
Wonder,  Siberian,  Hungarian  and  Japanese  Foxtail. 

187 


188 


Millet  can  properly  be  classed  as  an  emergency  hay  crop.  After  the 
farmer  is  convinced  that  his  hay  crop  is  going  to  be  short,  he  can  sow 
millet  any  time  before  the  first  of  August  and  secure  a  large  yield  unless 
the  weather  is  extremely  dry. 

Uses 

Millets  are  used  for  hay  and  grain.  They  make  splendid  soiling 
crops,  are  useful  for  green  manuring,  and  while  young  make  a  very  good 
pasture.  They  are  not  regarded  especially  good  for  silage  for  the  reason 
that  the  stems  are  apt  to  become  mouldy  in  the  silo.  Millet  is  a  carbo- 
hydrate like  corn,  and  to  secure  the  full  feeding  value  it  should  be  fed 
with  hay  or  concentrates  containing  a  large  per  cent  of  protein.  One 
hundred  pounds  of  millet  grains  contain  seven  and  one-tenth  pounds 
of  crude  protein,  forty-eight  and  five-tenths  pounds  of  carbohydrates, 
and  two  and  five-tenths  pounds  of  fat.  One  hundred  pounds  of  hay 
without  the  grain  contain  nine-tenths  pounds  of  crude  protein,  thirty- 
four  and  three  tenths  pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  six-tenths  pounds 
o  f  fat.  If  the  grains  are  fed  to  animals  other  than  poultry,  they  should 
be  ground,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  apt  to  pass  through  the  animal 
undigested.  If  millet  is  fed  with  corn  alone,  the  gain  made  is  very 
slight,  but  if  balanced  with  alfalfa,  clover,  cotton-seed  meal  or  some 
other  nitrogenous  feed,  splendid  results  are  obtained. 

Hungarian  millet  is  probably  the  best  variety  for  hay.  The  stems 
are  more  slender  and  the  heads  are  smaller  and  the  leaves  very  abun- 
dant. The  best  time  to  cut  for  hay  is  just  as  the  heads  are  forming. 
Usually  a  crop  can  be  cut  within  sixty  or  seventy  days  after  the  seeds 
are  sown. 

Seeding 

Millet  should  be  sown  on  a  well  made  seed-bed  and  lightly  covered 
with  a  harrow,  sowing  from  two  to  three  pecks  to  the  acre. 

Harvesting 

On  account  of  the  green  stems  containing  a  great  deal  of  moisture, 
after  the  hay  is  begining  to  wilt,  it  should  be  teddered  and  before  it 
is  sun-dried  should  be  placed  in  a  cylindrical  windrow  with  a  side- 
delivery  rake  in  order  that  it  will  be  air-dried  rather  than  sun-cured. 


RAPE 

A  VARIETY  of  this  plant  known  as  Winter  Rape  is  grown  in  the 
southern  states  both  for  forage  and  seed.     The  spring  variety  is 
grown  very  extensively  in  the  north. 

189 


190 


Soil 

While  rape  can  be  grown  on  a  variety  of  soils,  the  best  results  are 
obtained  from  a  light  rich  loam.  The  seed-bed  should  be  deep,  thor- 
oughly pulverized  and  rich  in  organic  matters. 

Time  to  Sow 

Rape  can  be  sown  as  soon  as  the  danger  of  freezing  is  past  or  after 
grain  has  been  harvested  in  July.  If  sown  in  the  spring  it  makes  an 
early  pasture  and  if  care  is  taken  will  last  until  the  middle  of  August 
or  the  first  of  September.  If  sown  in  July  it  will  usually  make  a  splen- 
did fall  pasture  provided  there  is  sufficient  rain.  It  can  be  sown  broad- 
cast or  drilled.  If  the  land  is  very  weedy,  it  is  advisable  to  drill  in 
rows  far  enough  apart  to  permit  of  cultivation.  From  4^  to  5  pounds 
of  seed  will  sow  an  acre  broadcast  and  from  2  to  3  pounds  when 
drilled.  The  value  of  rape  is  increased  by  sowing  two  pecks  of  oats  per 
acre  with  it. 

Uses 

Rape  makes  a  splendid  cheap  pasture  for  both  hogs  and  sheep.  The 
animals  should  not  be  turned  in  until  it  has  attained  a  growth  of  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches.  If  not  pastured  too  closely,  it  will  continue 
to  grow  until  late  in  the  summer.  A  good  plan  is  to  have  two  rape  lots, 
changing  from  one  to  the  other  every  two  weeks.  Rape  is. palatable, 
succulent  and  rich  in  nutrients.  The  ratio  of  protein  to  carbo- 
hydrates being  about  one  to  five.  When  used  for  soiling  it  should  be 
fed  before  it  wilts.  It  is  not  advisable  to  feed  it  to  dairy  cows  on 
account  of  the  peculiar  flavor  it  has  which  is  apt  to  affect  the  milk. 
If,  however,  it  is  fed  just  after  milking,  there  is  no  perceptible  odor  or 
taste  of  the  plant  in  the  milk. 

Pigs  make  a  remarkable  growth  on  a  rape  pasture  if  supplemented 
with  a  small  amount  of  corn.  Lambs  should  have  a  grass  pasture  in 
connection  with  the  rape. 

The  seed  is  valuable  as  a  food  and  oil.  The  oil  is  used  for  lubricating 
and  lighting  purposes  and  a  meal  made  from  the  seed  is  used  as  a  stock 
food.  A  good  growth  of  rape  will  supply  a  pasture  for  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  hogs  per  acre  for  a  period  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  weeks.  It  is 
estimated  that  an  acre  of  good  rape  has  a  pasturing  value  of  about 
$50.00. 


SILO 

A  SILO  is  a  receptacle  for  the  preservation  of  green  fodder.     It  may 
be  constructed  of  stone,  cement,  brick  or  wood.     Silos  are  usually 
circular  in  form,  deep,  with  perpendicular  walls  with  a  smooth  inside 

191 


surface.  On  account  of  the  enormous  weight  of  its  contents,  the 
structure  should  be  well  reinforced,  otherwise  it  is  liable  to  crack  and 
bulge. 

A  silo  preserves  green  fodder  such  as  corn  (both  stalk  and  ear), 
alfalfa,  clover,  soy  beans,  cow  peas,  or  any  vegetation  for  stock-feeding,- 
just  as  the  Mason  jar  preserves  fruit  and  vegetables  for  the  family. 

While  many  rough  stock  foods  can  be  preserved,  corn  is  utilized  to  a 
greater  extent  than  all  other  crops.  Corn  stover  and  ears  in  a  green 
state  are  chopped  in  small  pieces  and  placed  in  the  silo  and  made  com- 
pact by  tramping.  The  tramping,  however,  is  confined  to  the  edges, 
as  the  weight  of  the  mass  keeps  the  body  well  packed.  After  it  is 
placed,  fermentation  takes  place.  The  process  is  carried  on  by  acid 
bacteria  that  preserve  and  fix  the  food  ingredients.  After  fermenta- 
tion has  taken  place,  the  silage  has  a  slightly  tart  taste  and  is  extremely 
succulent  and  appetizing. 

Food  Value  of  the  Com  Plant 

The  entire  corn  plant  has  a  feeding  value,  but  it  is  to  be  regretted 
that  at  least  one-third  of  its  value  is  lost  unless  it  is  preserved  in  a  silo. 
Sixty  per  cent  of  its  food  value  is  in  the  ear  and  forty  per  cent  in  the 
stalk.  If  the  corn  is  husked  and  the  stalk  left  standing,  approximately 
eighty-two  per  cent  of  the  weight  and  fifty-five  per  cent  of  the  feeding 
value  is  lost.  If  corn  is  shocked,  the  loss  in  weight  is  seventy-five  per 
cent  and  forty  per  cent  in  feeding  value.  If  the  corn  is  properly  pre- 
served in  a  well  constructed  silo,  the  loss  is  very  little  and  the  product 
is  nourishing  and  relished  by  all  kinds  of  live-stock. 

When  to  Fill  the  Silo 

Corn  should  be  placed  in  the  silo  at  the  time  when  the  kernels  are 
beginning  to  dent  or  glaze,  and  other  fodders  previously  mentioned 
before  the  stems  pass  into  the  woody  stage.  If  the  fodder  is  too  green 
and  too  full  of  moisture,  there  is  danger  of  rotting.  If  the  crops  are  too 
ripe  and  dry,  fermentation  does  not  take  place  unless  water  is  applied 
to   the  mass. 

A  silo  must  be  free  from  cracks  and  crevices,  or  in  other  words,  air 
tight  below  the  top  of  the  silage.  If  air  is  admitted  below  the  surface, 
putrefactive  bacteria  produce  a  rotting  which  causes  the  silage  to  become 
mouldy  and  worthless.  Smooth  inside  walls  and  well  packed  edges 
preclude  air  spaces  within  the  mass,  a  matter  of  great  importance  if  a 
uniformly  well  preserved  food  is  secured.  Pea  and  soy  bean  vines, 
clover  and  alfalfa,  should  be  cut  and  left  on  the  ground  until  wilted 
before  being  placed  in  the  silo  with  corn,  unless  the  corn  is  quite  well 
matured.  In  that  event,  it  is  best  to  store  them  as  soon  as  cut,  for 
they  furnish  the  needed  moisture  to  start  fermentation.  Nitrogenous 
plants  such  as  the  legumes,  when  mixed  with  corn  in  the  proportion 

193 


194 


of  one  ton  of  the  former  to  seven  or  eight  tons  of  corn,  make  a  well 
balanced  ration  for  dairy  cows.  A  good  plan  is  to  drill  corn  intended 
for  the  silo  and  after  the  last  cultivation  plant  cow  peas  between  the 
rows.  The  pea  vines  will  climb  the  stalks  and  can  be  cut  with  the  corn 
when  it  is  ready  to  be  placed  in  the  silo.  By  pursuing  this  course, 
much  labor  is  saved  and  a  fairly  accurate  balanced  ration  is  secured. 
Sunflowers  are  sometimes  added  with  good  results.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  place  millet  in  the  silo  for  the  reason  that  the  stems  seem  to  mould. 
After  the  silo  has  been  filled,  the  top  should  be  covered  with  a  layer 
of  hay  or  straw  after  running  through  the  cutter.  This  top  cover 
should  be  wet  down  and  made  compact.  The  heavy  gases,  the  result 
of  fermentation,  should  be  allowed  to  escape  through  a  ventilator  in 
the  top.  Until  after  fermentation  has  ceased,  caution  should  be  used 
in  entering  a  silo  for  fear  of  an  accumulation  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 
The  presence  of  that  deadly  gas  can  be  ascertained  by  lowering  a 
lighted  lantern  into  the  silo  before  entering.  If  gas  exists  in  dan-- 
gerous  quantities,  the  light  will  be  extinguished. 

Feeding 

If  silage  is  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  few  days,  it  begins  to  spoil;  hence 
the  farmer  should  carefully  consider  the  number  of  cattle  to  be  fed  when 
he  constructs  the  silo.  About  two  or  three  inches  of  the  surface  should 
be  removed  each  day,  and,  if  even  more  can  be  fed,  there  will  be  less 
waste. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  build  the  silo  high  and  less  in  diameter.  By 
so  doing  the  surface  exposure  is  lessened  and  the  silage  is  more  compact 

Materials  Used  in  Construction 

Wooden  silos  can  be  constructed  at  little  cost,  and,  as  a  rule,  give  good 
results.  The  foundation  must  be  of  concrete  or  stone  and  the  ground 
floor  thoroughly  tamped.  The  sides  should  be  made  of  good  material, 
fir  being  preferable,  free  from  cracks  and  knots.  It  should  be  tongued 
and  grooved  and  bound  with  very  heavy,  substantial  iron  bands.  If 
studding  is  used  and  the  silo  is  lined  for  the  purpose  of  creating  an  air 
space,  that  air  space  must  be  well  ventilated;  otherwise,  it  will  become 
mouldy  and  unsanitary  because  of  dampness  from  the  silage. 

If  a  wooden  silo  is  protected  by  painting  occasionally  and  the  joints 
are  leaded  when  the  structure  is  built  and  the  iron  bands  are  tightened 
whenever  the  wood  shrinks,  it  will  be  very  durable  and  give  excellent 
service  for  many  years. 

If  cement,  stone  or  brick  construction,  the  walls  should  be  made 
thick,  reinforced,  and  great  care  taken  that  the  inside  is  made  perfectly 
smooth.  On  account  of  the  great  pressure,  such  silos  are  apt  to  crack 
unless  care  is  used  in  construction.  Like  the  wooden  silo,  if  an  air  space 
is  made  it  should  be  ventilated. 

196 


196 


Capacity  of  a  Silo 


A  silo  properly  filled — that  is,  if  the  contents  are  made  compact 
throughout — contains  one  ton  of  silage  for  every  fifty  cubic  feet  of  space. 
To  illustrate  the  economy  of  a  silo  to  store  stock  food  as  compared  with 
a  barn,  a  ton  of  hay  required  400  cubic  feet  of  space.  A  farmer  can 
easily  figure  how  much  a  silo  will  contain  by  the  following  rules: 

Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  0.7854,  that  will  be  the  area  of 
the  circular  floor.  Multiply  the  area  of  the  floor  by  the  height,  that  will 
give  the  number  of  cubic  feet.  One  cubic  foot  of  silage  weighs  40 
pounds.  Multiply  the  cubic  feet  by  40,  and  the  result  is  the  number  of 
pounds  of  silage.     Divide  that  by  2000  to  find  the  number  of  tons. 

Example 

If  a  silo  is  16  feet  in  diameter  and  26  feet  high,  16x16x0.7854  equals 
201.1  square  feet;  201.1x26  equals  5228.6  cubic  feet;  5228.6  cubic  feet 
multiplied  by  40  pounds  would  make  20^,164  pounds  of  silage,  or  a  little 
more  than  104  tons. 

The  following  table  gives  the  size  of  a  silo,  capacity  in  tons,  number  of 
acres  required  to  fill  it,  estimating  15  tons  per  acre,  and  the  number  of 
cows  it  will  feed  six  months,  giving  them  40  pounds  daily: 


Diameter 

Depth 

Capacity  in  Tons 

Acres  to  Fill 
15  tons  to  acre 

Cows  it  will  keep  6 

months,  40  pounds 

feed  per  day 

10 

20 

28 

3 

8 

12 

20 

40 

3 

11 

12 

24 

49 

3i 

13 

12 

28 

60 

4 

15 

14 

22 

61 

4^ 

17 

14 

24 

67 

4| 

19 

14 

28 

83 

5| 

22 

14 

30 

93 

6 

23 

16 

24 

87 

6| 

24 

16 

26 

97 

7 

26 

16 

30 

119 

8 

30 

18 

30 

151 

101 

37 

18 

36 

189 

12i 

45 

Summer  Silo 

The  benefits  of  a  silo  to  preserve  food  for  winter  feeding  are  beyond 
question.     The  farmer  who  combines  stock  and  grain  farming  cannot 

197 


afford  to  be  without  one.  The  summer  silo  is  of  equal  importance.  It 
Is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule  to  have  good  and  sufficient  pastur- 
age during  the  entire  summer.  Usually  one  month,  and  often  several 
during  the  summer  are  very  dry.  The  pastures  dry  out  and  stock 
suffers  for  succulent  food.  A  summer  silo  solves  the  trouble.  Twenty 
or  twenty-five  pounds  Of  silage  daily  will  maintain  a  full  flow  of  milk, 
feeders  will  continue  to  grow  and  fattening  cattle  will  gain  even  faster 
than  on  grass,  provided  the  same  amount  of  grain  is  given  with  the 
silage  that  has  been  given  them  in  connection  with  pasture. 


LIVE-STOCK 


PRODUCING  crops  is  no  more  important  than  raising  live-stock 
on  the  farm.     The  two  features  should  receive  equal  consider- 
ation for  they  are  absolutely  interdependent. 

If  the  farmer  is  at  all  desirous  of  making  his  occupation  profitable, 
he  should  keep  enough  live-stock  to  consume  the  coarser  products  of 
his  farm  and  the  by-products  of  wheat,  rye  and  possibly  a  few  other 
grains.  If  he  is  mindful  of  his  duty  to  coming  generations  he  should 
conserve  the  manure  from  the  stock  and  apply  it  to  the  land,  for 
manure  is  the  one  thing  available  or  can  be  made  available,  that  will 
perpetuate  the  fertility  and  productiveness  of  our  soils. 

The  exclusive  grain  raiser  is  a  miner,  he  is  not  a  farmer.  He  removes 
fertility  from  the  soil  and  impairs  its  physical  condition  and  returns 
nothing,  not  even  the  organic  matter  which  is  essential  to  make  avail- 
able the  inorganic  elements  existing  in  the  disintegrated  particles  of 
rock  which  make  up  the  substance  of  the  soil. 

The  exclusive  stock  feeder  is  a  party  to  the  crime,  for  he,  as  a  rule, 
wastes  fertility  which  belongs  to  the  land  that  produced  the  boughten 
feeds. 

Relation  of  Stock  to  Prices  of  Products 

When  the  farmer  feeds  the  major  portion  of  the  products  of  his  soil 
to  live-stock,  whether  it  be  for  beef,  dairy,  mutton  or  pork,  if  the  feeds 
are  given  in  a  balanced  ration,  he  will  receive  double  the  market  value 
for  the  feed  consumed  by  the  stock  and  have  the  manure  to  enrich  his 
land. 

Under  the  stimulating  influence  of  better  farming  teaching  and  a 
very  attractive  price  for  all  kinds  of  farm  crops,  the  soil  of  the  United 
States  have  made  a  very  remarkable  increase  per  acre  during  the 
past  (1912)  year.  The  market  value  of  farm  products  is  governed  by 
the  inexorable  law  of  supply  and  demand.  During  the  past  few  years, 
the  demand  has  been  greater  than  the  supply,  hence  the  high  prices. 

198 


It  was  thought  by  many  that  our  soils  were  becoming  depleted  of  fer- 
tility, that  they  had  reached  their  maximum  ability  to  produce  and 
henceforth  the  yield  would  be  a  little  less  each  year  until  the  final  deple- 
tion would  seal  the  fate  of  the  nation.  Teaching  better  farming 
methods  did  not  fall  on  deaf  ears.  The  farmer  was  ready  to  embrace 
all  practical  suggestions  which  would  increase  his  harvest.  Barnyard 
manures  were  utilized  to  a  greater  extent  during  the  past  year  than 
ever  before.  The  value  of  clover  was  recognized,  the  benefits  of  rota- 
tion were  seen,  deep  plowing  and  more  intensive  tillage  methods  made 
available  dormant  plant  food;  all  combining  to  make  the  1912  crop 
the  greatest  in  the  history  of  this  nation.  In  consequence  thereof, 
the  price  of  the  principal  crops  has  very  materially  decreased,  simply 
in  obedience  to  the  law  of  supply  and  demand.  The  supply  of  corn 
is  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  billion  bushels  greater  than  it  was  in  1911, 
and  the  price  is  practically  one-half  of  what  it  was  then. 

What  is  the  solution?  What  can  be  done  to  give  the  farmer  a  fair 
return  on  his  investment  and  for  his  labor  regardless  of  how  much  he 
may  produce?  There  is  but  one  answer;  create  a  greater  market,  and 
the  farmer  is  the  master  of  that  proposition.  The  price  of  meat  has 
been  increasing  since  the  day  the  homeseeker  began  to  encroach  upon 
the  western  range.  The  com  and  grain  farmers  east  of  the  plains 
have  not  made  up  the  deficit  in  stock  caused  by  the  restriction  of  those 
vast  and  once  free  pastures.  When  our  exports  of  meat  dwindled, 
Europe  turned  to  South  America  for  her  supply  of  meat  and  for  a  time 
the  supply  met  the  demand,  but  their  free  pastures  like  ours,  are  being 
pre-empted  by  the  new  farmers.  In  view  of  the  shortage  of  beef  cattle 
in  the  United  States,  which  amounts  to  approximately  fourteen  million 
head  since  1907,  and  the  growing  scarcity  in  South  America  and  the 
constantly  increasing  demand  for  meat,  the  prospect  for  cheap  meat  is 
very  remote.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  the  demand  will  continue  to 
increase  not  only  at  home,  but  abroad ;  hence  it  should  require  no  argu- 
ment to  convince  every  farmer  that  it  is  to  his  interest  to  create  a  mar- 
ket for  his  com  and  other  products  by  raismg  enough  live-stock  to 
consume  them,  for  by  so  doing  he  will  surely  be  able  to  obtain  a  very 
attractive  price  for  his  corn  and  other  rough  feeds,  if  scientific  prin- 
ciples and  good  judgment  are  observed  in  selecting  breeds,  giving  the 
animals  proper  care,  and  feeds  that  will  make  the  best  gains. 

Relation  of  Stock  to  Fertility 

To  those  who  are  not  in  sympathy  with  the  stock-raising  feature  of 
farming  and  are  advocating  that  permanent  fertility  can  be  maintained 
only  by  adopting  other  means,  we  will  ask  them  to  explain  how  it  is 
that  the  soils  of  many  countries  have  been  made  rich  and  more  pro- 
ductive with  each  passing  century  by  the  use  of  organic  matters  as  fer- 
tilizers and  by  pursuing  intensive  farming  methods.     We  admit  that 


some  soils  are  naturally  deficient  and  can  be  made  useful  only  by  sup- 
plying elements  in  a  commercial  form,  but  often  poor  crops  are  more 
apt  to  be  due  to  mismanagement  and  abuse  of  the  soil  rather  than  to 
depletion.  It  is  very  evident,  however  that  the  soils  of  the  central 
and  middle  western  states  especially,  are  not  depleted  nor  impaired, 
but  are  bristling  with  fertility  and  possess  a  potential  power  which 
cannot  be  estimated  if  rightly  handled.  The  remarkable  yield  made 
during  the  past  year  does  not  indicate  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is 
waning,  but  on  the  contrary  it  proves  conclusively  that  it  is  very 
rich,  and  no  man  can  anticipate  its  maximum  possibilities  when 
scientifically  tilled  and  managed,  any  more  than  he  can  forsee  the 
future  inventive  development  of  the  genius. 

Stock-Raising  Profitable 

Stock-raising  like  tilling  the  soil,  is  profitable  just  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  practical  science,  right  management  and  good  judgment 
the  farmer  devotes  to  the  business. 

There  are  three  fundamental  principals  to  be  observed  and  they 
are  interdependent  and  the  ultimate  profit  will  be  in  keeping  with  the 
step  or  feature  which  is  neglected.  The  essential  things  to  be  con- 
sidered,   are 

1.  Breed 

2.  Care.. 

3.  Feed. 

Breeds 

We  will  not  attempt  to  recommend  any  special  breed  (they  all  have 
merit),  believing  that  the  farmer  can  himself  best  determine  what 
breed  is  best  adapted  to  the  climate  and  conditions  where  he  lives.  We 
also  feel  that  he  can  best  judge  which  variety  or  kind  of  stock  he 
should    raise. 

Cattle  For  Beef 

The  main  characteristics  of  a  typical  beef  animal  are: 

Small  lean  head. 

Broad  muzzle. 

Large  full  clear  eyes. 

Short  neck,  but  very  full  and  thick  at  the  shoulders. 

Chest  broad  and  deep. 

The  section  behind  the  shoulders  should  be  nearly  circular. 

The  brisket  should  be  deep  and  project  well  forward,  shoulders  up- 
right, wide  and  thick  at  the  top.  There  should  be  no  hollow  behind 
the  shoulders  and  the  back  should  be  straight,  broad  and  level. 

The  hip  bones  should  be  far  apart,  rumps  high  and  well  covered 
with  flesh. 

200 


The  quarters  should  be  long,  straight,  thick  and  well  developed  to 
the  lower  part  of  the  thigh.  Ribs  should  spring  out  broadly  from  the 
back  and  be  deep  and  the  flank  should  be  deep,  wide  and  full. 

The  tail  should  be  flat  and  broad  at  the  root  and  tapering. 

In  a  typical  beef  animal,  the  tail  is  attached  high  up,  about  on  a 
level  with  the  rump. 

In  general,  the  body  of  the  typical  beef  critter  is  long  and  deep, 
thick,  both  before  and  behind.  The  legs  should  be  short  and  stout 
and  be  set  at  the  corners  of  the  animal  rather  than  at  the  end.  The 
skin  should  be  thick  but  very  soft  and  elastic.  During  the  winter  the 
hair  is  thick  and  long,  but  in  the  summer  it  is  short  and  lighter. 

Herefords 

The  Hereford  is  a  native  of  England.  Only  a  few  were  imported  in 
the  United  States  prior  to  1850.  The  Herefords  are  hardy  rustling 
animals  and  it  is  thought  that  they  make  better  gains  on  pasture  than 
other  beef  breeds.  They  respond  to  com  very  rapidly  while  on  pas- 
ture, and  can  be  made  prime  steers  in  a  remarkably  short  time.  For 
many  years  they  have  rivaled  the  Shorthorns  in  contests,  neither 
breed,  however,  having  any  marked  advantage  over  the  other.  No 
more  beautiful  live-stock  sight  can  be  seen  than  a  bunch  of  these  white- 
faced   cattle  in  prime  condition. 

Shorthorns 

Shorthorns  must  be  classed  with  the  composite  or  made  breeds. 
They  descend  from  herds  of  excellent  cattle  long  preserved  in  the 
counties  of  York,  Durham,  and  Northumberland.  The  breed  was 
greatly  improved  during  the  last  century  by  Mr.  Dobson  who  selected 
some  very  superior  bulls  in  Holland.  While  the  Shorthorns  are  the 
favorite  cattle  for  beef,  and  more  of  them  are  raised  in  the  United 
States  than  any  other  breed,  a  dairy  type  is  being  bred  which  is  mak- 
ing remarkable  records.  With  many  they  are  regarded  as  ideal  for 
general  purposes.  Several  varieties  of  Shorthorns  have  been  devel- 
oped, all  possessing  splendid  qualities.  It  is  indeed  difficult  for  the 
farmer  to  decide  between  the  Herefords  and  Shorthorns  as  to  the  best 
breed,  as  both  breeds  have  been  developed  in  the  United  States  to  a 
high  state  of  perfection. 

Galloways 

Galloway  cattle  take  their  name  from  a  district  in  Scotland  where 
the  breed  took  its  origin.  They  are  hornless  and  entirely  black  in 
color.  On  account  of  their  long  thick  hair,  which  is  almost  a  fur, 
they  are  adapted  to  cold  climates.  They  are  especially  adapted  to 
the  western  plains  on  account  of  their  ability  to  rustle  and  endure 
cold.  In  size  they  are  slightly  under  the  other  breeds  mentioned. 
The  meat,  while  it  is  not  so  fat,  is  regarded  as  excellent. 

201 


A  Typical  Beef  Animal 

Aberdeen-Angus 

The  Aberdeen-Angus  in  color  and  shape  are  very  much  Uke  the 
Galloways,  except  that  they  are  a  little  larger.  Like  the  Galloways 
they  are  of  little  value  as  dairy  animals. 

Sussex 

This  breed  attains  a  good  size  and  in  some  sections  of  the  United 
States  are  raised  for  oxen.  After  they  have  served  their  purpose  as 
beasts  of  burden  for  a  time,  they  can  be  put  in  prime  condition  and 
sold  on  the  market  for  a  good  price. 

Other  Breeds 

While  there  are  other  varieties  of  beef  cattle,  we  realize  that  the 
average  farmer  is  not  especially  interested  in  any  of  them  as  much  as 
he  is  in  the  Herefords,  Shorthorns,  Galloways  and  Angus. 

Dairy  Cattle 

We  can  furnish  no  better  description  of  the  typical  dairy  cow  than 
is  given  by  Brooks,  which  is  as  follows: 

202 


'^The  Ideal  Dairy  Type.  All  the  different  dairy  breeds  show  certain 
peculiarities  in  common.  While  differing  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
minor  points,  the  various  breeds  should  all  closely  approach  a  certain 
type  which  we  may  call  the  ideal  type. 

"Head.  Small,  lean,  and  bony,  with  large  muzzle  and  mouth. 
The  nose  and  face  should  be  free  from  fleshiness. 

"Eye.  Full,  large,  lively  in  its  expression  but  at  the  same  time 
mild,  clear,  and  bright.  The  whole  expression  of  the  face  and  eye 
should  be  motherly. 

"Forehead.  May  be  either  straight  or  dishing,  but  the  latter  gives 
a  more  well-bred  appearance. 

"Ear.  Thin,  large,  active,  and  for  most  breeds  should  be  of  an 
orange  color  within. 

"Neck.  Should  be  rather  thin,  especially  near  the  head,  and  long. 
It  should  be  free  in  most  breeds  from  loose,  pendent  skin. 

"Shoulders.  The  animal  at  the  shoulders  may  be  from  two  to  four 
inches  lower  than  at  the  hips.  The  shoulders  themselves  should  be 
thin,  especially  at  the  top,  lean  and  bony. 

"Chest.  Should  be  deep,  i.e.,  it  should  have  a  large  measurement 
from  top  to  bottom.  It  is  less  broad  and  roomy  than  in  beef  breeds. 
The  section  through  the  animal  behind  the  shoulders  should  have  an 
elliptical  outline.  Too  great  thinness  behind  the  shoulders  is,  how- 
ever,  a  mark  of   a  weak  constitution. 

"Back.  Should  be  rather  long  and  rugged.  The  vertebrae  of  the 
backbone  should  be  rather  wide  apart  so  that  the  fingers  may  be  pressed 
down  between  the  points  in  the  ridge  of  the  back.  This  is  only  one 
feature  of  the  general  looseness  of  structure  which  is  looked  for  in  the 
dairy  type,  as  contrasted  with  the  close,  compact  structure  which  is 
desirable  in  the  beef  type. 

"Loins.  Should  be  fairly  broad.  The  hip  bones  rather  high  and 
well  apart.  The  bones,  moreover,  are  often  rather  farther  forward 
than  in  the  beef  type.     This  gives  a  long  and  strong  hind  quarter. 

"Thighs.  The  thighs  should  be  thin,  especially  on  the  inside,  in 
order  to  give  room  for  a  large  udder. 

"Flank.     The  flank  is  well  up,  and  rather  thin. 

"Legs.  The  legs  should  be  rather  short  and  the  hind  legs  may  be 
rather  crooked.  The  bones  of  the  legs  should  be  moderately  fine. 
The  fore  legs  are  comparatively  near  together,  the  hind  legs  wide  apart. 

"Tail.  The  tail  should  be  long  and  fine,  with  a  long  switch.  A  long 
tail  is  belived  to  indicate  that  the  vertebrae  of  the  backbone  are  some- 
what loosely  connected,  which,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  is  considered 
highly  desirable. 

"The  General  Outline.  When  looked  at  from  the  side,  the  general 
outline  should  be  that  of  a  wedge,  the  upper  line  or  line  of  the  back- 

203 


bone  and  the  lower  line  or  line  of  the  belly  approaching  each  other 
from  behind.  When  looked  at  from  behind  or  from  above,  the  animal 
should  also  present  a  wedge  shape,  the  lines  of  the  wedge  approaching 
each  other  from  rear  to  front.  The  dairy  cow,  therefore,  shows  a 
double  wedge.  The  ribs,  to  harmonize  with  this  general  wedge  shape 
are  rather  flat  immediately  behind  the  shoulders.  At  this  point  they 
do  not  spring  out  very  widely  but,  toward  the  posterior  part  of  the 
animal,  the  ribs  spring  out  from  the  backbone  more  and  more  broadly 
in  order  to  give  room  for  large  internal  organs,  for  a  big  workshop. 

"The  Udder.  The  udder  should  not  be  very  pendent  but  should 
obtain  capacity  by  breadth,  being  wide  from  side  to  side,  extending 
well  forward,  well  backward  also,  and  high  up  between  the  thighs. 
It  should  be  broadly  and  firmly  attached  to  the  abdomen.  The  skin 
of  the  udder  should  be  thin  and  delicate.  The  udder  should  be  well 
filled  out  at  the  bottom  between  the  teats,  and  the  latter  should  be 
wide  apart,  squarely  placed,  and  of  good  size. 

"The  veins  leading  from  the  udder  forward,  just  beneath  the  skin 
of  the  belly,  should  be  large,  tortuous,  and  rapidly  branching.  They 
should  pass  in  through  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  through  large  open- 
ings. These  veins  do  not,  however,  become  fully  developed  until  the 
cow  reaches  maturity.  They  are  the  passages  through  which  the 
blood  returns  from  the  udder  to  the  heart  and,  since  a  large  amount 
of  blood  passing  through  the  udder  is  essential  to  the  production  of  a 
large  amount  of  milk,  the  development  of  these  veins  in  a  mature  cow 
is  a  point  of  much  importance. 

"In  general  appearance,  the  dairy  cow  is  somewhat  loose  and 
angular  as  compared  with  the  beef  type.  An  animal  of  this  type 
is  not  as  pleasing  to  the  eye  as  one  which  is  more  compact,  smoother, 
and  plumper  in  general  appearance,  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  'handsome  is  what  handsome  does,'  and  that  cows  with  these 
peculiarities  will  do  'handsomely.' 

"The  Skin.  The  skin  should  be  moderately  thin,  flexible,  and 
elastic,  the  hair  soft  and  fine.  A  skin  which  is  too  thin  or  papery 
indicates  lack  of  constitution.  The  skin  of  the  dairy  cow,  however, 
should  be  somewhat  thinner  than  that  of  animals  of  the  beef  breeds. 
When  the  animal  is  in  good  condition,  the  skin  will  move  somewhat 
freely  beneath  the  outspread  hand  and  it  can  be  rather  easily  raised 
between  the  thumb  and  finger  over  the  ribs. 

"According  to  Hoard,  a  large  navel  is  one  of  the  most  certain  indi- 
cations of  strong  constitution  and  he  insists  that  since  strong  constitu- 
tion is  essential  to  large  production,  this  is  an  exceedingly  important 
point  to  be  noted  in  selecting  a  dairy  cow." 

The  most  popular  breeds  of  dairy  cows  in  the  United  States  are, 

206 


Holsteins 

The  Holstein  is  called  the  milkman's  cow  because  she  gives,  if 
given  an  abundance  of  succulent  feed,  a  very  heavy  flow  of  milk. 
While  her  milk  is  low  in  butter-fat,  the  net  results  at  the  end  of  the 
season  compare  very  favorably  with  other  breeds.  The  Holstein  is  a 
large  hearty  cow,  being  the  largest  of  the  dairy  family.  She  is  well 
adapted  to  cold  climates,  thrives  on  rough  feeds  and  is  a  splendid 
rustler.  While  she  possesses  many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  typical 
dairy  cow,  she  is  also  a  very  good  beef  animal. 

Jerseys 

are  said  to  be  the  most  economical  producers  of  butter-fat.  The  cow 
is  small  in  size,  easy  to  keep  and  as  a  rule  quite  gentle.  Her  milk  con- 
tains a  high  per  cent  of  butter-fat  and  as  a  typical  dairy  cow,  ranks 
among  the  first. 

Guernseys 

The  Guernsey  cow  is  slightly  smaller  than  the  Holstein  and  larger 
than  the  Jersey.  She  gives  a  fairly  large  quantity  of  milk  and  in  points 
of  butter-fat  has  no  superior.  Her  milk  often  contains  as  high  as  six 
per  cent  butter-fat.  The  cream  is  a  rich  yellow,  making  a  beautiful 
golden  colored  butter.  The  Guernsey  cow  is  naturally  very  gentle 
and  the  bulls  have  none  of  the  vicious  characteristics  peculiar  to  most 
other  breeds.  Dairymen  with  mixed  breeds  often  are  able  to  increase 
the  percentage  of  butter-fat  and  improve  the  color  and  raise  their 
herd  in  a  few  years  to  a  high  standard  by  using  a  pure-bred  Guernsey 
bull.  We  do  not,  however,  advise  doing  so  if  it  is  possible  to  secure 
pure-bred  cows. 

Ayrshires 

This  cow  is  a  native  of  Scotland.  She  attains  a  medium  size,  gives 
a  fair  flow  of  milk  containing  3|  to  4  per  cent  of  butter-fat.  The 
Ayrshire  is  a  tough  rugged  rustler  and  will  yield  better  results  on  a 
rough-  short  pasture  than  any  of  the  dairy  breeds. 

Other  Breeds 

namely,  Devon,  Dutch  Belted,  Red  Polls,  and  dairy  Durhams  are 
considered  splendid  general  purpose  dairy  cows.  The  Brown  Swiss 
is  regarded  a  remarkable  milk  and  butter-fat  producer  and  is  consid- 
ered by  many  far  superior  to  all  other  breeds.  In  Switzerland,  where 
dairying  is  the  principal  business,  few  other  breeds  are  found. 


SWINE 

A  FARM     without    a    good    sized  drove    of    thrifty   hogs    is    a 
lonesome  place,  and  the  farmer  who  ignores  this  class  of  live- 
stock casts  aside  a  splendid  source  of  easy  money. 

The  hog  develops  about  as  rapidly  as  a  corn  crop  and  generally 
insures  a  very  profitable  return.  Success,  as  in  raising  other  kinds 
of  stock  depends  upon  breed,  feed  and  management.  Briefly  stated, 
the  essential  things  to  be  observed  in  raising  hogs  are, 

1.  Select  a  breed  which  will  make  a  marketable  weight  in  seven 
or  eight  months. 

2.  Plan  to  have  the  pigs  come  early  in  the  spring. 

3.  Provide  a  diversified  pasture  and  a  properly  balanced  diet  of 
concentrates. 

4.  Supply  plenty  of  pure  water  for  the  hogs  to  drink  and  clean 
water  in  cement  wallows. 

Types 

There  are  two  distincts  classes  or  types  of  hogs,  namely  the  lard  hog 
and  the  bacon  hog. 

Lard  Types 

The  most  common  and  popular  breeds  of  the  lard  types  are, 

Poland  Chinas 

This  breed  represents  the  typical  American  breed  of  lard  hogs. 
There  are  two  types  of  the  breed,  one  being  smaller  than  the  other. 
The  small  type  is  a  little  smoother  and  a  little  easier  to  mature,  but 
not  as  prolific.  The  large  type  has  a  long  heavy  body,  heavy  ears  and 
longer  legs  than  the  other  type  and  the  meat  is  a  little  coarser  grained. 
This  type  of  hog  grows  to  an  enormous  size,  but  the  writer  does  not 
regard  it  profitable  to  feed  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  weight 
after  the  hog  has  attained  a  fair  m.arketable  size  which  is  from  190  to 
225  pounds.  The  Poland  China  cannot  be  made  ready  for  market 
as  quickly  as  some  of  the  other  breeds. 

Duroc  Jerseys 

The  Duroc  Jersey  is  also  an  American  breed.  The  Duroc  is  of  a 
dark  reddish  color,  develops  to  a  good  size,  is  easy  to  fatten  and  proba- 
bly more  prolific  than  any  of  the  other  breeds.  This  breed  is  certainly 
a  very  desirable  hog  to  give  quick  returns  if  crowded  during  the  first 
seven  or  eight  months  of  its  life. 

Berks  hires 

The  Berkshire  is  regarded  as  an  English  breed.  This  hog  grows  to 
a  good  size,  is  about  as  prolific  as  the  Poland  China,  and  withal  a 
very  desirable  lard  hog. 

ao7 


208 


Chester  Whites 

This  breed,  like  the  Poland  China,  develops  to  an  enormous  size  if 
crowded  for  a  period  of  a  year  and  a  half  or  two  years.  They  are  very 
good  feeders,  develop  rapidly  and  when  eight  or  nine  months  old  usually 
weigh,  if  properly  fed,  200  or  more,  pounds.  They  are  regarded  with 
favor  by  the  packers  on  account  of  the  whiteness  of  the  carcass.  They 
are  very  good  mothers  and  fairly  prolific,  but  are  not  regarded  as 
great   rustlers. 

Essex 

Hogs  of  this  breed  are  small  and  compact,  are  easily  fattened  but 
are  not  as  prolific  as  many  of  the  other  breeds.  For  quick  returns 
they  are  superior  to  any  other  breed  although  they  do  not  develop 
to  the  same  weight  that  the  larger  breeds  of  lard  hogs  do  during  the 
summer  season.     In  the  matter  of  keeping,  they  are  very  economical. 

Bacon  Types 

There  are  three  prominent  breeds  of  the  bacon  type,  namely,  Hamp- 
shires,  Tamworths  and  Cheshires. 

The  Hampshire 

formerly  called  the  Thin  Rind,  has  a  long  clean-cut  body,  mediun 
long  legs  and  snout.  The  body  is  black,  except  a  white  band  over  the 
shoulders  and  down  the  front  legs.  The  Hampshire  is  a  very  hardy 
active  rustler  and  well  adapted  to  rough  pastures.  While  it  takes  on 
considerable  fat,  it  makes  splendid  bacon  and  hams  if  marketed  when 
it  weighs  from  180  to  200  pounds. 

The  Tamworth 

is  a  red  hog  with  a  long  gaunt  body  and  long  snout.  This  breed  is 
probably  more  hardy  and  a  greater  rustler  than  any  other  breed  or 
type  of  hog  known.  On  account  of  the  length  of  legs  and  their  active 
disposition,  they  excel  all  other  breeds  in  the  matter  of  speed.  The 
Tamworth  is  purely  a  bacon  hog,  excelling  all  other  breeds. 

The  Cheshire 

is  a  native  of  New  York.  It  is  white  in  color,  has  a  long  cylindrical 
body  and  long  legs,  but  the  bones  are  not  large.  While  the  Cheshire 
is  usually  called  a  bacon  hog,  it  is  really  a  medium  between  the  bacon 
and  lard  types. 


209 


FEEDING  LIVE-STOCK 

TO  secure  the  best  results  from  feeds,  the  farmer  should  know  what 
substances  are  necessary  to  promote  growth  and  how  to  propor- 
tion them.  He  should  also  know  the  nutrient  value  of  his  feeds. 
The  laws  governing  growth  are  very  exacting.  Haphazard  feeding  is 
not  profitable,  but  if  the  animal  is  fed  scientifically,  or  in  other  words, 
given  a  properly  balanced  ration,  the  results  are  usually  very  satis- 
factory. 

Feed  should  contain  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fats. 

Protein 

Protein  is  a  name  given  to  the  nitrogenous  compounds  of  a  plant. 
It  forms  the  muscles,  tendons,  ligaments,  hide,  blood,  nerves,  all  inter- 
nal organs  and  a  part  of  the  organic  portion  of  the  bones.  Protein 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  growth  and  if  not  provided  in  the  right 
quantities  the  growth  is  impaired.  If  food  contains  no  protein  or 
protein  alone  is  given,  the  animal  will  soon  starve. 

Carbohydrates 

Carbohydrates  are  composed  of  starch,  sugar,  gums  and  fibers  of 
all  nutrients  free  of  nitrogen.  Carbohydrates  are  the  source  of  heat 
and  muscular  energy,  and  fat. 

Fats 

In  some  cases  the  plant  stores  carbon  in  the  form  of  fat.  Vege- 
table fats  are  formed  from  the  same  elements  that  exist  in  the  carbo- 
hydrates, hence,  when  carbohydrates  are  mentioned,  the  fat  content 
is  considered.  Carbohydrates  alone  will  not  sustain  life  for  any 
great  length  of  time. 

A  Balanced  Ration 

A  balanced  ration  is  a  feed  or  combination  of  feeds  containing 
protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat  in  such  proportions  and  amounts  as 
are  necessary  to  furnish  nourishment  which  will  produce  a  healthy 
growth  and  production  to  the  greatest  desirable  degree. 

An  Unbalanced  Ration 

An  unbalanced  or  one-sided  ration  is  one  containing  too  much  or 
too  little  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  compounds  necessary  to  promote  a 
maximum  growth  and  production. 

Examples 

A  ration  containing  one  part  protein  and  four  parts  or  less  of  carbo- 
hydrates would  be  called  a  narrow  or  unbalanced  ration,  and  one 
containing  one  part  protein  and  seven  or  more  parts  of  carbohydrates 

210 


would  be  a  wide  ration.  A  well  balanced  ration  contains  one  part 
protein  to  five  or  six  and  one  half  parts  of  carbohydrates  as  the  require- 
ments demand. 

If  the  animal  is  young  and  a  rapid  growth  is  desired  then  the  ration 
should  be  about  one  to  five,  and  when  fat  is  desired,  more  carbohydrates 
should  be  given  and  the  ratio  increased  to  one  to  six  or  possibly  one 
to  six  and  one-half,  for  the  reason  that  carbohydrates  form  the  fat, 
and  are  the  source  of  energy. 

The  Nutrients  in  Feeds 

The  following  table  furnished  by  the  Minnesota  Agricultural  College, 
gives  the  nutritive  value  of  some  of  the  principal  feeds. 

CONCENTRATES 


Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Corn 

Barley 

Oats 

"W  heat        _  _      

.0'^9 
.087 
.092 
.102 
.099 
.089 
.078 
.070 
.122 
.129 
.168 
.202 
.233 
.293 
.322 
.372 

.667 
.656 
.473 
.692 
.676 
.450 
.571 
.521 
.500 
.401 
.518 
.445 
.507 
.327 
.422 
.169 

.043 
.016 
.042 
.017 

Rye .    .    -_ 

.011 

Millet 

.032 

Kaffir  Corn 

.029 

Sorghum 

.031 

Shorts 

.038 

Bran 

Peas 

.034 
.007 

Corn  Oil  Meal 

.088 

Gluten  Feed 

.027 

Oil  Meal 

.070 

Gluten  Meal ^ 

.025 

Cotton  Seed  Meal 

.122 

ROUGHAGE— GEEEN 

Fodder  Corn                   _   _ 

.010 
.006 
.026 
.012 
.021 
.020 
.027 
.039 
.018 
.031 
.019 

.116 
.122 
.180 
.191 
.212 
.148 
.121 
.127 
.187 
.110 
.102 

.004 

Sorghum   .  _ 

.004 

Oats 

Timothy, 

.010 
.006 

Red  Top 

.006 

Clover..              ._ 

.007 

Alsike 

.006 

Alfalfa 

.005 

Cow  Pea_              .    

.002 

Soy  Bean ...      .        ... 

.005 

Barley   _ 

.004 

SILAGE 

Corn 

Sorghum 

.009 
.006 
.015 
.020 

.027 
.030 

.113 
.140 
.006 
.135 
.087 
.085 

.007 
.002 
.009 
.010 
.013 
.019 

Cow  Pea              .    . 

Clover ' 

Soy  Bean 
Alfalfa 

STRAW 

Wheat 

.004 
.012 
.007 

.363 
.380 
.412 

.004 

Oats 

Barley        .    . 

.008 
.006 

211 


ROUGHAGE— CURED 


Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Fodder  Corn 

.025 
.017 
.024 

.028 
.029 
.048 
.043 
.032 
.024 
.lu9 
.107 
.068 
.084 
.liO 

.346 

.328 
.321 
.434 
.415 
.469 
.464 
.485 
.299 
.401 
.382 
.358 
.425 
.396 

.012 

Stover 

Sorghum 

Timothy 1 

Prairie  Hay .. 

Red  Top 

.007 
.016 
.014 
.012 
.010 

Oat  Hay 

Millet                        -    

.015 
.010 

Marsh  Hay 

.009 

Soy  Bean 

.015 

Cow  Pea        -                     _     - 

.012 

Clover 

Alsike 

.017 
.015 

Alfalfa 

.012 

MISCELLANEOUS 


Potato 

Sugar  Beet. 

Mangel 

Turnip 

Rutabaga.- 

Cabbage 

Pumpkin.- 

Rape 

Beet  Pulp- 


.001 
.001 
.001 
.002 
.002 
.003 
.003 
.002 
.000 


How  to  Determine  a  Balanced  Ration 


By  referring  to  the  foregoing  tables,  it  is  not  difficult  to  determine 
the  amount  of  each  essential  element  in  feeds  given  and  in  what  quan- 
tities they  should  be  proportioned.  To  illustrate:  corn  is  called  a 
carbohydrate,  because  the  quantity  of  carbohydrates  and  fat  exceeds 
the  amount  of  protein  to  an  extent  beyond  a  balanced  ration.  To 
determine  the  amount  of  carbohydrates  including  the  fat  in  100  pounds 
of  a  given  feed,  multiply  the  digestible  fat  in  100  pounds  by  2.25  and 
add  the  product  to  the  digestible  carbohydrates.  By  referring  to 
the  foregoing  tables,  it  will  be  seen  that  one  pound  of  corn  contains 
.079  protein,  .667  carbohydrates  and  .043  fats.  Therefore,  100  pounds 
of  corn  contains  7.9  pounds  of  protein,  66.7  pounds  of  carbohydrates 
and  4.3  pounds  of  fat.  Multiply  the  fat  by  2.25  and  add  to  the  carbo- 
hydrates, we  have  the  total  amount  of  carbohydrates,  4.3x2.25  equals 
9.67  plus  66.7  or  76.37  pounds  of  carbohydrates.  To  get  the  ratio, 
divide  76.37  by  the  protein,  7.9,  and  we  have  1  to  9.7  or  decidedly  an 
unbalanced  ration  containing  too  much  of  the  elements  that  go  to  make 
fat,  and  not  enough  of  protein  to  promote  growth,  hence,  we  must 
balance  the  ration  by  adding  a  nitrogenous  feed  containing  protein. 


212 


It  is  shown  by  the  tables  that  wheat,  oats,  bran,  peas,  gluten  feed, 
oil  meal  and  cotton  seed  meal  are  all  rich  in  protein,  and  if  mixed 
with  corn  ration,  will  equalize  the  feed. 

Of  roughages,  corn  fodder,  sorghum,  timothy  hay,  prairie  hay, 
millet  and  silage  are  carbohydrates.  Alfalfa,  cow  peas,  soy  beans, 
and  clover  on  the  other  hand  are  rich  in  protein. 

Having  a  knowledge  of  the  nutritive  content  of  the  various  feeds, 
it  is  easy  to  figure  out  a  very  desirable  ration  knowing  that  a  good  ration 
contains  one  part  of  protein  to  five,  six  or  six  and  one-half  parts  of 
carbohydrates.  It  must  be  remembered  that  carbohydrates  alone, 
or  nitrogenous  feeds  alone,  are  poor  rations. 

The  results  of  good  and  bad  rations  will  be  given  in  discussing  the 
various  departments  of  stock-feeding. 


WATER 

PURE  water  is  a  very  essential  factor  in  animal  growth  and  health. 
Dirty  troughs,  mud-holes  and  stagnant  streams  tend  to  disor- 
ganize the  digestive  system  amd  encourage  diseases.  Hog  cholera  is 
often  transmitted  to  healthy  hogs  by  drinking  water  from  a  contami- 
nated stream.     Henry  says: 

"Animals  can  live  much  longer  without  solid  food  than  without 
water  and  an  insufficiency  of  water  in  the  body  causes  serious  dis- 
turbances. The  processes  of  mastication,  digestion,  absorption  and 
assimilation  are  hindered,  the  intestines  are  not  properly  flushed, 
waste  matter  remains  too  long  therein,  the  blood  thickens  and  the 
body  temperature  is  increased.  Through  these  complications,  death 
may  result.  Animals  partially  deprived  of  water  for  a  long  period 
lose  their  appetite  for  solid  food  and  vomiting  and  diarrhea  may  occur. 
The  latter  also  often  takes  place  when  water  is  again  supplied." 

Under  normal  conditions,  animals  consume  a  fairly  uniform  quantity 
of  water  for  each  pound  of  dry  matter  eaten.  Kellner  places  the 
amount  at  four  to  six  pounds  for  milch  cows,  four  to  five  pounds  for 
oxen,  two  to  three  pounds  for  horses  and  sheep,  and  for  swine  seven 
to  eight  pounds,  which  seems  excessive.  Possibly  due  to  their  laxa- 
tive nature,  feeds  rich  in  crude  protein,  bran,  linseed  meal,  peas,  etc., 
cause  a  greater  demand  for  water  than  starchy  feeds.  Kellner  found 
that  for  each  100  pounds  of  water  drank  and  in  the  food,  the  stabled 
ox  passed  46.3  pounds  in  the  solid  excrement,  29.2  in  the  urine  and 
24.5  in  the  breath  and  perspiration.  Water  is  an  important  regulator 
of  the  temperature  of  the  animal  body.  A  large  amount  of  heat  is 
absorbed  in  converting  water  into  the  vapor  given  off  by  the  lungs  and 
skin,  and  when  sweat  evaporates  it  carries  much  heat  from  the  body. 

813 


The  free  drinking  of  water  does  not  diminish  the  gains  of  animals 
nor  increase  the  breaking  down  of  protein  in  the  body,  though  flush- 
ing the  intestines  with  much  water  may  at  first  cause  a  more  complete 
removal  of  the  nitrogenous  waste  therefrom.  With  animals  which 
continue  to  drink  freely,  the  nitrogenous  waste  soon  becomes  normal 
again.  Scientists  now  agree  that  farm  animals  should  have  all  the 
water  they  will  drink,  for  they  do  not  take  it  in  excess  unless  they  are 
forced  to  live  on  watery  foods  or  are  given  salt  irregularly.  The 
excess  of  water  taken  into  the  body  is  discharged  through  the  urine. 

Water  taken  into  the  body  must  be  raised  to  the  temperature  of  the 
body.  Warrington  points  out  that  during  winter  sheep  in  the  turnip 
fields  of  England  consume  about  twenty  pounds  of  the  roots  daily, 
containing  over  eighteen  pounds  of  water,  or  about  fifteen  pounds 
more  than  is  needed.  To  raise  fifteen  pounds  of  water  from  near 
the  freezing  point  to  the  body  temperature  requires  the  heat  evolved 
in  the  body  by  burning  nutrients  found  in  the  turnips,  equivalent 
to  three  ounces  of  glucose,  or  about  eleven  per  cent  of  their  total  food 
value.  In  addition,  the  equivalent  of  more  than  two  ounces  of  glucose 
must  be  burned  for  each  pound  of  water  vapor  given  off  from  the  lungs 
and  skin.  Warming  cold  water  taken  into  the  body  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  that  more  food  must  be  burned,  for  animals  evolve  a 
large  amount  of  heat  in  the  work  of  digesting  food  and  converting  the 
digested  matter  into  the  body  products  or  work.  Due  to  this,  many 
animals  have  an  excess  of  body  heat.  Comfortably  housed  and  well-fed 
steers  and  dairy  cows  burn  more  food  than  is  needed  to  keep  their  bodies 
warm,  and  such  excess  may  go  to  warm  the  water  they  drink,  so  that 
no  food  is  directly  burned  for  that  purpose. 

Armsby  points  out  that  in  winter  farm  animals,  watered  but  once 
daily,  drink  freely.  The  sudden  demand  for  heat  caused  by  taking 
into  the  body  this  large  quantity  of  cold  water  may  exceed  the  avail- 
able supply.  The  result  is  that  some  of  the  food  nutrients  or  body 
tissues  are  burned  to  meet  it.  Animals  unduly  exposed  to  cold  and 
those  sparingly  fed  or  with  scant  coats  may  be  directly  helped  by 
watering  frequently  or  by  warming  their  drinking  water.  In  cold 
regions  in  order  to  induce  animals,  especially  cows,  to  drink  freely  in 
winter,  it  is  usually  best  to  warm  the  water,  which  should  be  com- 
fortably accessible. 


AIR 

PURE  air  is  a  vital  requirement  for  animals.     A  close,  restricted, 
unventilated  barn  impairs  digestion,  restricts  growth  and  produc- 
tion, and  is  the  chief  cause  of  tuberculosis,  both  in  hogs  and  cattle. 
Henry  says :     "The  first  and  most  vital  requirement  of  animals  is  air." 


The  amount  of  air  breathed  by  farm  animals,  as  given  by  King,  is 
placed  in  the  first  division  of  the  table  below.  The  second  division 
shows  the  quantity  of  fresh  air  that  must  pour  into  a  room  where  ani- 
mals are  confined  in  order  to  provide  substantially  pure  air,  or  that 
which  does  not  contain  over  3.3  per  cent  of  air  that  has  been  previously 
breathed. 

AIR  BREATHED  BY  ANIMALS  AND  AIR  REQUIRED  FOR  GOOD  VENTILATION 


Air  Breathed 


Ventilation  Requirement  per 
Animal 


Animal 

Hourly 
Cu.  Ft. 

Per  24  Hours 

Hourly 
Cu.  Ft. 

Per  24  Hours 

■ 

Cu.  Ft. 

Lbs. 

Cu.  Ft. 

Horse 

Cow 

Pig 

Sheep 

142 

117 

46 

30 

3,401 
2,804 
1,103 

726 

272 

224 

89 

58 

4,296 

3,542 

1,392 

917 

103,104 
85,008 
33,408 
22,008 

The  table  shows  that  the  horse  breathes  hourly  142  cubic  feet  of  air 
and  daily  about  3,400  cubic  feet,  which  weighs  about  272  pounds.  To 
provide  the  horse  in  confinement  with  air  not  more  than  3.3  per  cent  of 
which  has  been  previously  breathed,  there  must  hourly  pass  into  the 
room  not  less  than  4,296  cubic  feet,  or  over  103,000  cubic  feet  each  24 
hours. 

The  cow  gives  off  about  19  therms  of  heat  each  24  hours,  or  enough  to 
raise  79,603  cubic  feet  of  dry  air  from  0  degrees  F.  to  50  degrees  F.  The 
proper  ventilation  for  the  cow  requires  that  about  85,000  cubic  feet  of 
air  be  brought  into  the  stable  each  24  hours.  This  is  only  a  little  more 
air  than  the  natural  heat  from  her  body  will  raise  from  0  degrees  F.  to  50 
degrees  F.,  which  is  a  desirable  winter  temperature  for  cow  stables  in 
cold  climates. 

The  King  system  of  ventilation  should  be  installed  in  every  stock 
barn.  This  system  not  only  furnishes  fresh  air  for  the  stock,  but  the 
natural  heat  of  the  animals  in  the  barn  during  extreme  cold  weather  will 
keep  the  temperature  moderately  warm  if  the  circulation  of  air  is  pei-- 
fect. 


DAIRYING 

DAIRYING  is  a  feature  in  Better  Farming  the  importance  of  which 
the  farmer  cannot  afford  to  ignore.  History  does  not  record  an 
instance,  if  properly  conducted,  where  dairying  has  not  proven  success- 
ful from  every  viewpoint. 

1.     The  dairy  cow  maintains  in  a  great  measure  the  fertility  of  the 
soil. 

216 


I 


SIS 


2.  She  makes  an  income  for  the  farmer,  at  least  three  hundred 
days  each  year  in  the  production  of  butter-fat. 

3.  Skim  milk  has  a  feeding  value  almost  equal  to  whole  milk. 

4.  Her  offsprings  has  a  value  ranging  from  ten  to  one  hundred 
per  cent  of  the  cow. 

Success  in  the  dairying  like  other  branches  of  farming  depends 
entirely  upon  the  foundation  of  the  herd,  and  the  thoroughness  and 
skill  devoted  to  the  work  by  the  farmer. 

If  the  business  is  conducted  in  a  careless  manner,  if  the  cow  is  not 
manifestly  a  milk  producer  and  properly  cared  for  and  rightly  fed, 
or  if  the  breed  is  not  adapted  to  climatic  and  other  conditions,  dairy- 
ing will,  like  tilling  the  soil  in  a  haphazard  way,  be  unprofitable,  but 
if  all  of  the  essential  features  are  strictly  observed  the  farmer  will  be 
rewarded  by  having  a  very  attractive  net  balance  at  the  end  of  the 
year. 

Testing  a  Cow 

The  first  essential  is  to  select  cows  of  a  breed  that  are  manifestly 
milk  producers  and  then  select  from  them  only  those  that  prove, 
after  a  year's  trial,  to  be  profitable  performers.  While  a  large  per 
cent  of  pure-bred  dairy  cows  are  profitable,  grades,  if  carefully  selected, 
are  excellent  producers  of  milk  and  butter-fat.  A  pure-bred  sire  pos- 
sessing an  ancestry  of  good  milkers  will  soon  bring  the  herd  to  a  high 
standard  and,  for  the  average  farmer,  this  is  the  quickest  and  most 
economical  way  to  secure  a  profitable  herd. 

Every  dairyman  should  have  a  Babcock  tester  in  order  that  he  may 
know  how  much  butter-fat  his  cows  are  producing  and  note  the  results 
obtained  from  various  feeds.  Too  often  a  few  poor  producers  will 
consume  the  profits  made  by  the  balance  of  a  fairly  good  herd. 

In  trying  out  a  cow,  a  record  of  the  amount,  the  kind  of  food  and 
its  value  should  be  kept,  as  well  as  a  daily  record  of  milk  and  butter- 
fat.  It  costs  from  ten  to  twelve  cents  a  day  to  feed  a  cow,  or  from 
$35.00  to  $42.00  per  year.  A  cow  that  will  not  give  3,000  pounds 
of  milk  in  one  year  is  not  regarded  as  very  profitable  and  should  be 
replaced  by  a  more  promising  one.  A  cow  giving  4,000  pounds  of 
milk  in  one  year  pays  for  her  keeping  and  compensates  the  farmer 
for  his  labor,  interest  on  the  investment,  etc.,  but  a  good  cow,  properly 
fed,  will  produce  6,000  pounds  of  milk  and  is  worth  to  the  farmer 
approximately  $140.00  gross  if  milk  is  worth  20  cents  per  gallon. 

Prof.  Fraser,  chief  of  Dairy  Husbandry  of  the  University  of  Illinois 
in  Circular  No.  134  gives  some  very  interesting  data  on  the  keep  and 
profit  of  several  herds  which  compare  favorably  with  the  ordinary 
dairy.  His  experiments  should  prompt  all  dairyimen  to  test  their 
cows.     In  summing  up  he  makes  the  following  statement: 

217 


0)   o 


si  bo 


218 


I 

I 


"The  returns  from  cows,  when  expressed  in  dollars  and  cents,  stand 
out  much  more  vividly  than  they  do  when  expressed  in  pounds  of  milk 
and  butter-fat.  Therefore,  if  every  dairyman  would  keep  a  yearly 
record  of  the  amount  of  milk  and  butter-fat  produced  by  his  individual 
cows,  and  from  this  calculate  the  profit  or  loss  on  the  individuals, 
he  would  be  astonished  at  the  wide  variation  in  earning  capacity  of 
the  different  cows  in  his  own  herd,  and  the  results  would  be  of  untold 
value  to  him.  When  the  herds  themselves  are  given  like  considera- 
tion, a  notable  contrast  in  the  variation  in  earning  capacity  of  the 
herds  is  brought  out." 

The  cows  in  one  herd  lacked  $7.48  each  of  paying  for  their  feed  and 
care,  while  each  cow  in  another  herd  made  a  profit  of  $42.77,  making 
a  difference  in  income  of  over  $50  per  cow  between  the  two  herds. 
The  best  cow  in  a  good  herd  brought  in  $69.70  profit,  while  the  poorest 
cow  in  the  poor  herd  was  kept  a  loss  of  $27.52,  making  a  difference 
in  the  earning  power  of  the  two  cows  of  nearly  $100  annually." 

Selecting  a  Herd 

The  herd  should  be  choosen  strictly  from  a  business  standpoint,  or 
in  other  words,  the  farmer  should  select  a  breed  of  cows  adapted  to 
the  line  of  dairying  he  expects  to  engage  in.  One  breed  is  especially 
adapted  to  butter,  the  milk  containing  a  high  per  cent  of  butter-fat 
and  having  the  natural  color  of  butter.  Another  is  desirable  for  the 
quantity  of  milk,  but  contains  less  butter-fat,  while  another  breed  is 
for  general  purposes,  that  is,  both  milk  and  beef.  As  a  safeguard 
against  contaminating  the  herd,  every  cow  bought  should  be  tested 
for  tuberculosis  and  the  entire  herd  should  be  tested  at  least  once 
each    year. 

Care  of  the  Cow  and  Dairy  Buildings 

While  breeding  and  feeding  are  essential  features,  care  of  the  dairy 
cow  is  of  no  less  importance.  The  dairy  barn  should  be  roomy,  well 
lighted  and  thoroughly  ventilated.  Good  health  is  maintained  by 
furnishing  the  right  kind  of  food,  pure  water  and  an  abundance  of 
pure  air.  If  the  dairy  cow  is  compelled  to  breathe  dead  air,  she  will 
sooner  or  later  contract  tuberculosis. 

A  system  of  ventilation  constructed  on  scientific  principles  is  inex- 
pensive and  a  safeguard  against  disease.  Sunlight  is  a  germ  destroyer 
and  a  great  purifier,  hence,  the  cow  barn  should  be  so  constructed 
that  sunlight  can  enter  all  parts  of  the  barn  some  time  during  the  day. 
The  barn  should  be  kept  clean  and  gypsum  or  phosphate  rock  sprinkled 
in  the  stalls  and  manure  gutter  after  the  droppings  have  been  removed. 
An  abundance  of  pure  water  should  be  accessible  at  all  times. 

219 


220 


Unless  the  weather  is  extremely  cold,  cows  do  much  better  in  an 
exercising  shed  during  the  night  than  if  confined  in  stanchions.  Cows 
should  not  be  exposed  to  cold  stormy  weather  at  any  time. 

Cows  should  be  curried  and  the  udder  thoroughly  cleansed  before 
milking.  The  milker  should  be  in  good  health,  wear  clean  garments 
and  have  clean  hands  in  order  to  insure  sanitary  milk. 

Milk  should  not  be  kept  in  cans  or  pails  in  the  stables,  but  be  removed 
to  a  detached  milk  house  as  soon  as  it  is  taken  from  the  cow.  The 
floor  in  both  milk  house  and  cow  barn  should  be  made  of  cement  and 
all  walls  and  equipment  given  a  coat  of  paint  often  enough  to  prevent 
the  accumulation  of  disease  germs.  When  steam  is  accessible,  it  is 
advisable  to  sterilize  stalls,  feed  boxes,  etc.,  occasionally. 

Contagious  Abortion  in  Cows — How  to  Prevent 

This  disease  is  due  to  a  specific  micro-organism.  The  cow  becomes 
contaminated  from  afflicted  cows  or  bulls,  voided  calves,  afterbirths 
and  discharges.  The  germs  persist  for  months  unless  the  affected 
cows  are  removed  and  the  barn  and  surroundings  made  perfectly 
sanitary.  By  using  steam,  hot  water,  disinfecting  fluid  and  white- 
washing the  interior  of  the  bam,  the  germs  can  be  destroyed. 

When  a  cow  is  threatened  with  abortion,  she  should  be  isolated  and 
if  she  is  restless,  given  from  one-half  to  one  ounce  of  laudanum  or 
one-half  ounce  of  fluid  extract  of  canabis  indica  in  a  little  water. 
Also  give  about  one  ounce  of  the  fluid  extract  of  black  haw  and  con- 
tinue the  black  haw  giving  one-half  ounce  once  or  twice  daily  until 
the    cow   is   well. 

To  prevent  other  cows  in  the  bam  from  contracting  the  disease 
where  one  has  aborted,  spray  the  external  genitals  of  each  pregnant 
cow  with  a  one  per  cent  of  coal  tar  disinfectant  and  disinfect  the  floor 
and  gutters  by  using  coal  tar  solution  or  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate, 
one  ounce  to  the  gallon  of  hot  water. 


I 


RATIONS  FOR  DAIRY  COWS 

WHILE  the  ration  should  contain  the  essential  elements  of  milk, 
no  fixed  formula  can  be  prescribed  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  all  cows.  The  dairyman  can,  by  trials,  usually  select  a  diet 
suited  to  the  individual.  The  needs  of  different  animals  vary  from 
time  to  time.  A  balanced  ration  for  a  large  cow  giving  a  large  quan- 
tity of  milk  would  not  be  suited  to  a  small  one  giving  a  less  quantity, 
and  a  cow  which  is  inclined  to  fatten  easily  should  have  less  carbo- 
hydrates than  a  lean  one.     Hence,  the  dairyman  should  study  his  cows 

221 


and  cut  and  fit  to  suit.  No  better  general  feeding  guides  can  be  given 
than  those  furnished  by  our  experimental  stations  and  practical  dairy- 
men  who   have   been   successful. 

We  will  present  in  an  abridged  form  those  that  have  given  the  best 
results  and  compare  them  with  rations  selected  without  reference  to 
the  nutrient  value  of  the  feeds  or  the  requirements  of  the  individual 
cow. 

Good  and  Poor  Rations 

The  New  Jersey  Experimental  Station  made  the  following  test 
between  a  good  ration  and  a  poor  one. 


SUMMARY  OP  TEST 


Good  Ration 

Dry 

Matter 
Lbs. 

Protein 
Lbs. 

Digestible 
Fat 
Lbs. 

Carbo- 
hydrates 
Lbs. 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

30  lbs.  silage 

7.69 
4.22 
3.53 
3.65 
1.82 

.37 
.17 
.54 
.67 
.50 

.21 
.06 
.13 
.22 
.14 

.76 

.11 

.10       , 
.12 

.33 

4.48 
2.23 
1.80 
1.36 
.69 

10.56 

6.50 
3.57 
2.63 

12.70 

5  lbs.  hay  (timothy) 

4  lbs.  wheat  bran 

4  lbs.  dried  brewers'  grains 

2  lbs.  linseed  meal 

Total 

Poor  Ration 
12  lbs.  cornstalks 

20.91 

10.78 
6.75 
3.42 

2.34 

.41 
.27 
.32 

1.00 

1  :5.3 

8  lbs.  hay  (timothy) 

4  lbs.  corn  meal 

Total 

20.95 

1  :  13.5 

Result  of  the  Test 

Four  cows  were  included  in  the  test  which  continued  for  two  months. 
The  milk  from  each  cow  was  weighed  daily  and  the  per  cent  of  butter- 
fat  determined  by  analysis.  The  yield  of  milk  and  fat  is  given  in  the 
following  table. 

SUMMARY  OF  TEST 


Good  Ration 

Poor  Ration 

Milk 
Lbs. 

Fat 
Per  Cent 

Fat 
Lbs. 

Butter 
Lbs. 

Milk 
Lbs. 

Fat 
Per  Cent 

Fat 
Lbs. 

Butter 
Lbs. 

CowNo.  1--. 
CowNo.2_.. 
CowNo.3_.. 
Cow  No. 4 

949.9 
538.5 
500.4 
712.9 

4.72 
3.55 
4.48 
3.65 

44.84 
19.00 
22.39 
25.98 

52.31 
22.28 
26.12 
30.31 

613.6 
435.6 
402.5 
562.5 

4.02 
3.45 
4.61 
4.01 

24.68 
15.01 
18.56 
22.58 

28.79 
17.51 
21.65 
26.35 

Total  and 
Average 

2701.7 

4.16 

112.32 

131.04 

2014.2 

4.01 

80.84 

94.32 

"This  summary  shows  that  687.5  pounds  or  34.1  per  cent  more 
milk,  and  31.47  pounds,  or  38.9  per  cent  more  fat  were  produced  from 
the  good  rations  than  from  the  poor  rations,  an  actual  gain  in  pro- 
duction of  over  one-third.     The  cost  of  the  food  used  to  produce  100 


pounds  of  milk  and  one  pound  of  butter  was  practically  the  same  for 
the  two  rations,  viz.,  70.2  cents  and  14.5  cents,  respectively  for  the 
good  ration,  and  70.3  cents  and  15  cents  for  the  poor  ration,  yet  34.1 
per  cent  more  milk  and  38.9  per  cent  more  butter  were  produced  from 
the  good  ration  than  from  the  poor  ration  with  practically  the  same 
amount  of  labor  and  capital.  The  results,  therefore,  indicate  that  twenty 
cows  well  fed,  yet  with  no  attempt  at  forcing,  would  produce  as  much 
milk  as  thirty  cows  equally  as  good  if  fed  an  abundance  of  corn  stalks 
and  timothy  hay  and  four  pounds  of  corn  meal  per  day.  If,  then, 
there  is  any  profit  in  producing  milk  from  a  ration  made  up  largely  of 
roughage  of  a  carbonaceous  character  on  the  basis  of  this  experiment, 
the  profit  might  be  increased  one-third  by  feeding  a  ration  containing 
a  larger  amount  of  concentrated  feed  and  properly  balanced  in  respect 
to  food  compounds.  It  has  been  claimed  that,  other  things  being 
equal,  a  small  herd  well  fed  will  prove  more  profitable  than  a  large 
herd  poorly  fed  and  the  facts  brought  out  by  this  study  emphasize 
the  correctness  of  this  claim.  They  point  to  the  importance  of  good 
feeding  in  the  economical  production  of  milk  and  butter." 

In  addition  to  all  the  food  the  cow  will  eat,  she  should  be  provided 
with  as  much  pure  water  as  slie  will  drink.  During  the  winter  the 
water  should   be  slightly   warmed. 

A  cow  requires  from  three-quarters  to  one  ounce  of  salt  each  day. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  in  some  convenient  place  in  the  cow  lot  a  few 
large  lumps  of  rock  salt. 

Ear  Corn  Compared  with  Corn-and-Cob  Meal 

Lane  of  the  New  Jersey  Station  compared  broken  ear  corn  with  an 
equal  weight  of  corn-and-cob  meal  with  the  results  shown  in  the 
table: 


Average  Ration 

Average  Daily  Yield 
per  Cow 

Milk,  Lbs. 

Fat,  Lbs. 

Lot  1  — 

Ear  corn,  6  lbs.;  corn  stover,  10  lbs.;  wheat  bran,  6  lbs.; 
hay,  9.4  lbs 

20.2 
22.1 

0.89 

Lot  2  — 

Corn-and-cob  meal,  6  lbs.;  corn  stover,  10  lbs.;  wheat 
bran,  6  lbs.;  hay,  9.4  lbs. 

0.93 

The  table  shows  the  returns  from  the  corn-and-cob  meal  exceed 
those  from  ear  corn  by  9.4  per  cent  for  milk  flow  and  4.5  per  cent  in 
the  yield  of  fat.  These  returns  in  favor  of  gi'inding  corn  are  not  materi- 
ally different  from  those  secured  with  fattening  steers  and  swine. 


224 


Corn  and  Mixed   Grains 

At  the  Maryland  Station  Patterson  fed  cows  on  corn  meal  as  the 
sole  concentrate  during  the  entire  lactation  period,  while  others  given 
a  mixture  of  corn  meal,  gluten  feed  and  wheat  bran  in  such  quantity 
as  to  form  with  the  roughage,  chiefij'  dry  fodder  and  silage  corn,  a 
balanced  ration.  The  next  year  the  rations  were  reversed  so  that 
each  cow  was  on  both  sides  of  the  trial.  The  average  yearly  returns 
were    as    follows: 


YIELD  PER  COW 

Milk,  Lbs. 

3,150 
4,195 

Butter,  Lbs. 

W  hen  corn  meal  only  was  fed 

When  mixed  grains  were  fed 

152 
221 

It  is  shown  that  the  returns  were  about  45  per  cent  greater  when 
feeding  a  balanced  ration  of  mixed  grains  than  with  corn  meal  as  the 
exclusive  concentrate.  Only  when  the  roughage  is  rich  in  crude 
protein  should  corn  constitute  the  sole  concentrate  in  the  ration  of 
the  dairy  cow,  and  even  then  more  variety  would  be  better. 

Ground  Oats  and  Bran 

Woll  of  the  Wisconsin  Station  compared  ground  oats  with  wheat 
bran  in  a  feeding  trial  with  four  cows  lasting  47  days  with  the  results 
shown    in    the    table. 

GROUND  OATS  COMPARED  WITH  WHEAT  BRAN 


Average  Ration 

Average  Daily  Yield 
per  Cow 

Milk,  Lbs. 

Fat,  Lbs. 

Lot  1  — 

Ground  oats,  10  lbs.;  clover  hay,  6  lbs.;  corn  meal,  2  lbs. 
corn  stover,  without  limit 

23.3 

10.^ 

Lot  2— 

Wheat  bran,  10  lbs.;  clover  hay,  6  lbs.;  corn  meal,  2 

lbs. ;  corn  stover,  without  limit 

1 
20.8                 0  9R 

The  table  shows  a  return  of  about  11  per  cent  more  milk  and  fat 
from  ground  oats  than  from  wheat  bran.  The  high  feeding  value  of 
oats  for  the  dairy  cow  is  well  illustrated  in  this  trial. 

Kaffir  Meal 

In  a  trial  with  eighteen  cows  for  seven  weeks,  Cottrell  and  Skinner 
of  the  Kansas  Station  found  that  eight  pounds  of  KafRr  meal  and  twenty 
pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  made  the  cheapest  dairy  ration  for  Kansas 
conditions.  When  fed  with  prairie,  timothy,  or  sorghum  hay  or  corn 
fodder,  Kaffir  tends  to  dry  up  the  cows,  and  if  fed  abundantly  to  fatten 
them. 


Gluten  Feed  Compared  with  Wheat 
Bran  and  Corn  Meal 

Cooke  of  the  Vermont  Station  fed  two  cows  the  following  rations 
alternately  for  periods  of  eighteen  days  each  to  compare  gluten  feed 
with  the  same  weight  of  a  mixture  of  corn  meal  and  wheat  bran. 


Average  Ration 

Average  Daily  Yield 
per  Cow 

Milk,  Lbs. 

Fat,  Lbs. 

Ration  1 — 

Gluten  feed,  4  lbs.;  wheat  bran,  2  lbs.;  cut  hay,  8  lbs.; 
corn  meal,  2  lbs.;  corn  silage,  without  limit 

21.5 

18.7 

1.08 

Ration  2— 

Wheat  bran,  4  lbs.;  cut  hay,  8  lbs.;  corn  meal,  4  lbs.; 
corn  silage,  without  limit                         . .   .   .   . 

0.93 

The  table  shows  a  gain  of  15  per  cent  in  milk  and  16  per  cent  in 
fat  through  substituting  gluten  feed  for  an  equal  weight  of  corn  meal 
and  bran  equal  parts. 

COTTON-SEED  MEAL  COMPARED  WITH  VARIOUS  FEEDS 


Average  Ration 


(South  Carolina  Station) 
Lot  1— 

Cotton-seed  meal,  5.1  lbs.;  corn  silage,  34.8  lbs 

Lot  2— 

Wheat  bran,  3.4  lbs.;  cotton-seed  meal,  3.4  lbs.;  corn 

silage,  32.1  lbs 

(New  Jersey  Station) 
Lot  1— 

Cotton-seed  meal,  4.5  lbs.;  corn  silage,  36  lbs.;  corn 

stalks,  6  lbs 

Lot  2— 

Wheat  bran,  5  lbs.;  corn  silage,  36  lbs.;  dried  brewers' 
grains,  5  lbs. ;  corn  stalks,  6  lbs 


Average  Daily  Yield 
per  Cow 


Dried   Brewers'    Grains   Compared   with   Wheat   Bran 

At  the  Massachusetts  Station,  Lindsay  compared  dry  brewers' 
grains  with  wheat  bran  for  cows.  Seven  cows,  divided  into  two  lots, 
were  fed  in  two  alternate  periods  covering  four  weeks  each,  the  ration 
and   daily   returns   being  as  follows: 


Average  Ration 

Average  Daily  Yield 
per  Cow 

Milk,  Lbs. 

Fat,  Lbs. 

Lot  1— 

Dried  brewers'  grains,  4.3  lbs.;  corn  silage,  26.3  lbs.; 

gluten  feed,  3.0  lbs.;  blue-grass  hay,  12.1  lbs 

Lot  2— 

Wheat  bran,  4.4  lbs.;  corn  silage,  26.2  lbs.;  gluten  feed, 
3.0  lbs. ;  blue-grass  hay,  12.6  lbs. 

21.4 
20.8 

1.1 
1.1 

226 


The  results  show  dried  brewers'  grains  somewhat  superior  to 
wheat  bran  for  milk  production. 

Hills  of  the  Vermont  Station  found  dried  brewers'  grains  and  wheat 
bran  equal  in  feeding  value  to  a  mixture  of  cotton  seed  meal,  linseed 
meal  and  wheat  bran.  Hay  ward  and  Weld  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Station  found  dried  brewers'  grains  equal  to  buckwheat  middlings. 


CORN  SILAGE  COMPARED  WITH  CORN  FODDER 


Average  Ration 

Average  Daily  Yield 
per  Cow 

Milk,  Lbs. 

Fat,  Lbs. 

Lot  1— 

Corn  silage,  44.0  lbs.;  wheat  bran,  4.6  lbs.;  dried  brew- 
ers' grains,  3.4  lbs.;  corn  meal,  1.1  lbs.;  linseed  meal, 
1.1  lbs.                                          

23.7 
21.0 

0.90 

Lot  2— 

Corn  fodder.  14.3  lbs.;  concentrates  as  above 

0.90 

The  table  shows  that  the  silage  fed  cows  averaged  2.7  pounds  or 
12.8  per  cent  more  milk  daily  than  those  on  dry  fodder  corn,  a  convinc- 
ing example  of  the  merits  of  corn  silage. 

Corn  Silage  Compared  with  Sugar  Beets 

Haecker  of  the  Nebraska  Station  compared  corn  silage  and  sugar 
beets  with  two  lots  of  five  cows,  each  fed  for  a  period  of  five  weeks  with 
the  results  shown  below.  The  concentrates  consisted  of  equal  parts 
of  oats,  corn  and  wheat  bran. 


Average  Ration 

Average  Daily  Yield 
per  Cow 

Milk,  Lbs. 

Fat,  Lbs. 

Lot  1  — 

Corn  silage,  30  lbs.;  alfalfa  hay,  10  lbs.;  concentrates,  6 
to  10  lbs.       

17.4 
16.1 

0.84 

Lot  2— 

Sugar  beets,  30  lbs.;  alfalfa  hay,  10  lbs.;  concentrates,  6 
to  10  lbs . . . .  _ 

0.78 

It  is  shown  that  where  thirty  pounds  of  corn  silage  was  fed  against 
an  equal  weight  of  sugar  beets,  the  small  difference  in  yield  of  milk 
and  fat  was  in  favor  of  the  silage. 


SS7 


SOILAGE  VS.  PASTURE 


From  Wisconsin  Station 

SOILAGE  means  supplying  forage  such  as  grass,  clover,  alfalfa,  green 
corn,  rye,  oats,  etc.,  fresh  from    the  fields   to   animals  confined 
in  a  yard,  shed  or  stable. 

"Twenty  cows  kept  in  stalls,  but  allowed  to  exercise  in  an  open 
yard,  were  kept  on  the  green  crops  from  17  acres  of  land  when  50 
acres  had  previously  been  required  to  sustain  them.  Three  cows 
were  kept  during  the  summer  on  an  excellent  blue-grass  pasture. 
During  the  same  period  three  other  cows  were  maintained  in  a  stable 
and  yard  by  soilage.  The  pastured  cows  consumed  the  grass  from 
3.7  acres  while  the  soilage  cows  had  the  forage  from  1.5  acres."  The 
yield  of  forage  was  as  follows: 


Green  Clover,  three  cuttings 

Green  Fodder  Corn 

Green  Oats 

Waste  from  the  above 

Total  green  forage  eaten  from  1.5  acres. 


Pounds 

18,792 
23,658 

2,385 

44,835 
1,655 

43,180 


The   product   was   as   follows: 

From  3.7  Acres 
Pasture 

From  1.5  Acres 
Soiling  Crop 

Return 

per  Acre 

Pasture 

Soilage 

Milk 

Butter-fat 

6,583  lbs. 
303  lbs. 

7,173  lbs. 
294  lbs. 

1,780  lbs. 
82  lbs. 

4,782  lbs. 
196  lbs. 

This  shows  that  one  acre  of  soilage  equals  2|  acres  of  good  blue- 
grass    pasture. 

Grinding  Grain  for  Cows 

The  average  grain  left  whole  when  fed  to  cows,  as  given  by  the 
Michigan  Station,  is  as  follows: 


Corn 

Oats 

Corn  and  Oats 


Per  Cent 


22.8 
12.1 
26.5 


The  foregoing  would  indicate  that  it  is  profitable  to  grind  grain 
for  cows,  unless  they  are  followed  by  pigs.  The  gain  made  by  pigs 
following  cows,  fed  on  whole  grain  practically  absorbs  all  loss.     It 


has  been  repeatedly  demonstrated  that  is  does  not  pay  to  grind  or 
cook  com  for  pigs.  While  there  is  a  slight  increase,  they  require 
more  pounds  of  feed  to  make  a  given  amount  of  gain. 

Corn  Silage  vs.  Corn  Fodder 

The  results  of  the  Vermont  Station  experiments  are  as  follows: 

I  Pounds 

24,858  lbs.  of  green  fodder  corn  when  dried  and  fed  with  a  uniform  daily, 

ration  of  hay  and  grain,  produced,  of  milk 7,888 

24,858  lbs.  of  green  fodder  corn  when  converted  into  silage  and  fed  with 

the  same  daily  ration  of  hay  and  grain,  produced,  of  milk 8,525 

The  experiment  shows  837  pounds  of  milk,  or  11  per  cent  in  favor 
of  silage. 

At  the  Wisconsin  Station  the  results  were  as  follows: 
"From  29,800  pounds  of  green  fodder  24,440  pounds  of  silage  was 
obtained.  It  was  fed  with  1,648  pounds  of  hay  and  2,884  pounds 
of  grain  producing  7,496  pounds  of  milk  containing  340.4  pounds  of 
butter-fat.  From  29,800  pounds  of  green  fodder  were  obtained 
7,330  pounds  of  field-cured  fodder  corn,  which  fed  with  1,567  pounds 
of  hay  and  2,743  pounds  of  grain»  produced  7,119  pounds  of  milk 
containing  318.2  pounds  of  fat,  or  377  pounds  of  milk  and  7  per  cent 
more  of  butter-fat  in  favor  of  the  silage." 

A  Well-Balanced  Ration 

The  Illinois  Station  gives  the  following  for  a  cow  weighing  1200 
pounds  giving  30  pounds  of  milk  daily: 

20  pounds  of  clover  hay 
8  pounds  of  ground  corn 
6  pounds  of  wheat  bran 

This  ration  contains  one  pound  of  protein  to  6.4  pounds  of  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat. 

W.  H.  Martin,  herdsman  at  the  Deere  Dairy  Farm  recommends 
the  following  mixtures  for  dairy  cows. 

Mixture  No.  1 — Four  parts  bran,  two  parts  oats,  two  parts  corn,  one  part  cotton- 
seed meal. 

Mixture  No.  2 — 100  pounds  corn,  200  pounds  oats,  300  pounds  bran,  200  pounds 
oil  meal,  200  pounds  cotton-seed  meal. 

Mixture  No.  3 — 250  pounds  oats,  200  pounds  corn  and  cob  meal,  200  pounds  bran, 
150  pounds  gluten,  175  pounds  cotton-seed  meal,  100  pounds  oil  meal. 

Mixture  No.  -4 — 150  pounds  corn  grains,  300  pounds  oats,  200  pounds  bran,  250 
pounds  gluten,  200  pounds  cotton-seed  meal. 

Mixture  No.  1  is  especially  adapted  to  cows  before  calving.  The 
daily  ration  of  the  others  should  depend  upon  the  amount  of  milk  given 


and  the  size  of  the  cow.  Usually  one  pound  of  the  mixture  for  every 
three  or  four  pounds  of  milk  is  sufficient. 

To  the  above  rations  should  be  added  from  twenty  to  thirty  pounds 
of  corn  silage,  ten  to  twenty  pounds  of  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  and  from 
eight  to  ten  pounds  of  beets  or  other  roots. 

A  good  ration  for  the  average  herd  is: 

18  to  20  pounds  of  clover,  alfalfa  or  pea  hay 
35  to  38  pounds  of  corn  silage 
2  to  3  pounds  of  corn  meal 
2  to  3  pounds  of  ground  oats 
2  pounds  of  linseed  meal 

Various    Rations   for   Dairy    Cows 

(By  Henry) 

A  Poor  Ration — Timothy  hay,  20  pounds;  ground  corn,  4  pounds;  dried  brewers' 

grains,  7  pounds. 
A  Fair  Ration — Clover,  22  pounds;  ground  corn,  8  pounds. 
An  Ideal  Ration — Corn  silage,  40  pounds;  clover  hay,  15  pounds;  cotton-seed  meal, 

1  pound;  ground  corn,  3  pounds. 

To  the  above  rations  should  be  added  all  the  roughages  the  cow  will 
eat. 

Roughages,  Class  One — Poor  in  digestible  crude  protein,  poor  in  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, high  in  fiber:  Wheat  straw,  barley  straw,  marsh  hay,  salt  marsh  hay, 
cotton-seed  hulls,  corn  stover,  oat  straw,  rye  hay. 

Roughages,  Class  Two — Fair  in  digestible  crude  protein,  fair  in  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, considerable  fiber:  Timothy  hay,  redtop  hay,  Bermuda  hay,  John- 
son-grass hay,  sorghum  fodder,  Kaffir  fodder,  milo  fodder,  corn  fodder,  corn 
silage,  roots. 

Roughages,  Class  Three — Rich  in  digestible  crude  protein,  fair  in  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, considerable  fiber:  Alfalfa  hay,  red  clover  hay,  cow  pea  hay,  vetch 
hay,  soy  bean  hay,  velvet  bean  hay,  beggar-weed  hay. 

Concentrates,  Class  Four — Fair  in  digestible  crude  protein,  rich  in  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, little  fiber:  Ground  corn,  corn-arid-cob  meal,  hominy  feed,  oats, 
barley  meal,  emmer  meal,  rye  meal,  buckwheat  meal,  buckwheat  bran,  rice  meal, 
Kaffir,  milo,  dried  beet  pulp. 

Concentrates,  Class  Five — Rich  in  digestible  crude  protein,  fair  in  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, some  fiber:  Low-grade  flour,  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  rye 
bran,  rye  middlings. 

Concentrates,  Class  Six — Highest  in  digestible  crude  protein,  fair  in  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates, little  fiber:  Gluten  meal,  gluten  feed,  buckwheat  middlings,  cow  pea 
meal,  soy  bean  meal,  linseed  meal,  field  p'ea  meal,  cotton-seed  meal,  soy  bean 
cake  meal,  dried  brewers'  grains,  dried  distillers'  grains. 

A  Safe  Guide 

When  there  is  an  ample  supply  of  suitable  roughages,  the  following 
is  a  safe  rule: 

Give  to  each  cow  as  many  pounds  of  concentrates  daily  as  she  yields 
pounds  of  butter-fat  weekly,  or  one  pound  of  concentrates  daily  for 
every  three  or  four  pounds  of  milk  yielded  daily. 

If  rich  silage  is  given,  the  amount  of  concentrates  should  be  less. 

230 


FEEDING  CALVES 

A  CALF  shourd  be  carefully  cared  for  and  judiciously  fed  during  the 
first  few  weeks  of  its  life.  If  affected  with  scours,  indigestion  or 
any  ailment,  it  becomes  stunted  and  its  subsequent  development  will 
be  retarded. 

Many  dairymen  deem  it  advisable  to  feed  pure-bred  calves  whole 
milk  for  several  weeks,  and  some  permit  the  calf  to  run  with  its  mother, 
believing  that  the  calf  is  less  liable  to  be  afflicted  with  bowel  and  stomach 
troubles  and  will  make  a  greater  gain.  As  a  rule,  it  is  not  profitable, 
owing  to  the  value  of  butter-fat,  to  feed  calves  whole  milk  after  the  first 
ten  days  or  two  weeks. 

If  the  milk  contains  as  much  as  four  and  one-half  or  five  per  cent  of 
butter-fat,  a  delicate  stomach  may  reject  it  or  it  may  weaken  a  strong 
stomach.     In  that  event,  warm  water  or  thin  milk  should  be  added. 

If  the  farmer  does  not  have  a  market  for  his  butter-fat,  but  does  have 
an  extensive  rarge,  it  is  profitable  to  raise  animals  for  beef,  permitting 
the  calves  to  run  with  the  dams. 

As  soon  as  possible  the  calf  should  be  taught  to  eat  shelled  corn,  oats, 
bran,  etc. ;  otherwise,  at  weaning  time  it  is  apt  to  become  stunted  while 
learning  to  eat  grains. 

When  to  Wean  the  Dairy  Calf 

As  a  general  proposition,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  separate  the  calf  from  its 
mother  very  soon  after  it  is  born.  If  the  calf  is  permitted  to  be  with  its 
mother  a  few  days,  it  is  more  difficult  to  teach  it  to  drink,  and  the 
attachment  formed  between  the  two  causes  both  to  fret  after  separation 
more  than  they  otherwise  would.  The  calf  should,  however,  always 
get  the  first  milk  or  colostrum,  which  is  designed  by  nature  for 
cleansing  the  bowels  and  stimulating  normal  digestion. 

Feeding  the  Calf 

Give  the  calf  two  or  three  pounds  of  whole  milk  containing  from  three 
to  three  and  one-half  per  cent  of  butter-fat  three  times  daily  for  a  period 
of  two  weeks,  thereafter  dilute  the  whole  milk  by  adding  from  20  to  25 
per  cent  of  skim  milk  each  week  until  all  the  milk  given  is  skim.  In 
addition  to  the  milk,  a  small  quantity  of  gi-ains  should  be  given.  Skim 
milk  is  rich  in  protein,  but  contains  very  little  of  the  carbohydrates; 
hence,  as  skim  milk  is  added,  grains  containing  carbohydrates  should  be 
supplied.  Corn  meal  or  shelled  corn  is  probably  the  best  substitute  for 
butter-fat.  The  young  calf's  stomach  is  very  small  and  will  not  hold  a 
great  amount  of  milk  at  first.  Too  often  over-feeding  is  responsible  for 
many  of  the  calf's  afflictions.  Milk  should  be  given  sweet  and  warm. 
Each  calf  should  be  fed  separately  from  a  pail,  and  the  pail  kept  per- 
fectly clean.  Scours  and  other  stomach  and  bowel  troubles  are  usually 
caused  from  unsanitary  pails  or  troughs. 

231 


Otis  of  the  Wisconsin  Station  makes  the  following  concise  statement 
in  regard  to  feeding  calves: 

"Skim  milk  contains  more  protein  and  carbohydrates  than  whole 
milk.  In  selecting  a  grain  to  take  the  place  of  the  fat  that  has  been 
removed,  it  is  neither  necessary  nor  advisable  to  get  one  rich  in  protein, 
as  the  skim  milk  furnishes  this  nutrient.  While  calves  may  do  well  on 
high-priced  concentrates,  they  are  unnecessarily  expensive  and  give  no 
better  results  than  the  cheaper  carbonaceous  grains  such  as  corn,  oats, 
barley,  Kaffir  or  sorghum." 

Calves  will  sometimes  learn  to  eat  the  grain  more  readily  if  a  little 
bran  forms  a  part  of  the  ration  for  a  short  time.  A  number  of  farm 
grains  have  been  used  successfully  in  feeding  calves.  The  following  list 
may  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  calf  feeder  in  making  selections  or  combina- 
tions to  suit  his  conditions: 

1.  Corn  meal  gradually  changed  in  four  to  six  weeks  to  shelled  corn 
with  or  without  bran. 

2.  Whole  oats  and  bran. 

3.  Whole  oats  or  corn  chop,  the  latter  being  gradually  replaced  by 
shelled  corn  in  four  to  six  weeks. 

4.  Ground  barley  with  bran  or  shelled  corn. 

5.  Shelled  corn  and  ground  Kaffir  or  sorghum. 

6.  Whole  oats,  ground  barley  and  bran. 

7.  A  mixture  of  20  pounds  of  oat  meal,  20  pounds  of  oil  meal,  10 
pounds  of  blood  meal  and  5  pounds  of  bone  meal,  changed  to  corn,  oats 
and  bran  when  calves  are  three  months  old. 

8.  A  mixture  of  6  pounds  whole  oats,  3  pounds  bran,  1  pound  of  corn 
meal  and  1  pound  of  linseed  meal. 

The  calf  may  be  taught  to  eat  grain  by  rubbing  a  little  on  its  mouth 
when  it  is  through  drinking  milk.  There  is  little  danger  of  calves  get- 
ting too  fat  on  any  of  these  grains  while  being  fed  skim  milk.  Should 
any  of  the  dairy  calves  show  a  tendency  to  fatten,  a  little  bran  or  oil 
meal  can  be  added  to  the  ration  and  the  corn  reduced  or  removed. 
After  weaning  from  milk,  greater  care  will  be  needed  in  selecting  grains 
containing  the  right  amount  of  protein  and  mineral  matter  for  the 
proper  development  of  bone  and  muscle. 

There  is  also  little  or  no  danger  of  the  calf  fed  skim  milk  eating  too 
much  grain.  The  young  calf  makes  better  gains  for  grain  consumed 
than  the  older  calf,  which  is  an  additional  reason  for  giving  it  all  it  will 
eat.  Limiting  the  grain  ration  causes  a  loss  in  gain  and  is  seldom  to  be 
recommended.  The  calf  is  possessed  of  a  good  set  of  grinder  teeth  and 
when  from  four  to  six  weeks  of  age,  is  able  to  do  most  of  his  own  grind- 
ing. A  number  of  feeders  have  obtained  excellent  results  with  whole 
oats.     Experiments  indicate  that  calves  do  better  and  are  less  subject  to 


scours  when  fed  shelled  corn  instead  of  corn  chop.  Grains  that  are 
small  and  hard,  like  sorghum  and  KafRr,  give  better  results  ground. 

When  possible,  it  is  best  to  feed  a  mixture  of  two  or  three  grains  than 
one,  but  a  large  variety  does  not  seem  to  be  of  any  special  merit.  A 
number  of  calf  meals  may  be  purchased  on  the  market.  While  these 
undoubtedly  possess  some  merit,  they  are  usually  high-priced,  and,  as  a 
rule,  possess  no  particular  merits  over  a  good  combination  of  farm- 
grown  grains.  It  is  not  advisable  to  mix  grain  with  the  milk.  The 
calf  needs  to  properly  masticate  it  and  not  gulp  it  down  before  the 
starchy  matter  of  the  feed  is  acted  upon  by  the  saliva.  This  precaution 
will  frequently  avoid  scours. 

Calves  will  eat  roughages  at  about  the  same  time  they  begin  to  eat 
grain,  vi/.,  two  or  three  weeks  of  age,  and  will  consume  about  the  same 
quantity  of  each  at  first.  As  the  calf  grows  older,  the  proportion  of 
roughage  to  grain  increases,  and,  by  the  time  the  calf  is  six  months  of 
age,  it  will  have  consumed  about  three  times  as  much  roughage  as  grain. 
The  quality  of  the  hay  should  be  of  the  best,  always  clean  and  bright. 
It  can  be  placed  in  a  rack  in  one  corner  of  the  calf  pen.  Any  left 
uneaten  should  be  removed  at  the  next  feeding  and  a  new  supply  added. 

The  Kansas  Station  reports  the  following: 


How  Fed 


No. 

of 
Calves 


Before  Weaning 


210  Days  in  Feed  Lot, 
After  Weaning 


Length 
of  Time 
(Days) 


Average 
Daily     Cost    for 
Gain     100  Lbs., 
(Lbs.)    [Gain 


Skim  Milk 10  154      i       1.5      I    $2.26 

Whole  Milk 10  154  1.9  7.06 

Running  w'h  Dam        22  140  1.8  4.41 


Average 
Daily 
Gain 

(Lbs.) 


Concentrates 

Per  100  Lbs., 

Gain 


2.1 
1.9 
2.0 


439 
470 
475 


The  above  fully  illustrates  the  great  value  of  skim  milk  for  calves.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  skim  milk  is  very  rich  in  protein  and  to  secure 
the  best  results,  carbohydrates  in  the  form  of  corn,  grains,  corn  meal  or 
KafRr  corn  must  be  given  to  make  a  balanced  ration.  In  the  above  test, 
those  fed  skim  milk  and  whole  milk  were  given,  in  addition,  equal  parts 
of  corn  meal  and  KafRr  meal  with  alfalfa  hay.  After  weaning,  all  were 
placed  in  the  feed  lot  and  given  the  same  ration. 

After  a  calf  is  two  months  old,  it  should  be  given  water  to  drink 
three  or  four  times  during  the  day.  If  the  calf  is  puny  and  does  not 
eat  well,  it  should  be  given  from  one  teaspoonful  to  one  tablespoonful 
dried  blood  or  blood  meal  in  the  skim  milk  each  day.  Blood  meal 
is  a  splendid  tonic  as  well  as  a  good  remedy  in  cases  of  scours. 


233 


Martin  Recommends  the  Following 
Rations  for  Calves 

Calves  until  they  are  two  weeks  old  should  be  given  whole  milk 
and  one  third  of  a  pound  of  grain  and  all  the  hay  and  grass  they  will 
eat.  After  a  period  of  two  weeks,  twenty-five  per  cent  of  skim  milk 
should  be  added  each  week  until  all  the  milk  is  skim.  The  amount  of 
grain  should  be  increased  from  one-third  of  a  pound  to  two  pounds 
according  to  the  age  of  the  calf. 

In  Martin's  test  with  skim  milk  and  whole  milk,  he  found  that 
after  a  calf  was  five  weeks  old  it  made  a  greater  gain  on  skim  milk 
than  on  whole  milk,  when  the  proper  amount  and  kinds  of  concentrates 
were  added. 

Pens 

The  calf  quarters  should  be  kept  clean.  A  damp  dirty  unventilated 
pen  is  one  of  the  main  causes  of  disease.  The  calf  should  receive 
sunlight  and  air  and  plenty  of  clean  bedding.  The  bedding  should 
not  be  permitted  to  become  damp  and  filthy.  During  the  summer 
a  well  shaded  pasture  should  be  provided. 

Scours 

When  the  calf  has  scours,  it  should  be  isolated.  This  trouble, 
which  depletes  and  stunts  the  calf,  is  caused  from  dirty  pens,  dirty 
pails  and  troughs,  sour  milk,  old  milk,  cold  milk  and  over-feeding. 
This  serious  trouble  can  be  prevented  if  the  dairyman  will  observe 
cleanliness,  give  sweet  milk  at  the  right  temperature  and  not  feed  too 
much  at  a  time.  It  is  better  to  feed  often,  especially  during  the  first 
few  weeks  of  the  calf's  life.  Scalded  milk  will  sometimes  give  relief 
and  a  spoonful  of  blood  meal  will  often  check  the  trouble  in  its  early 
stages.  Castor  oil  given  in  doses  of  from  two  to  six  tablespoonfuls 
well  shaken  in  the  milk  is  a  good  remedy.  This  should  be  followed 
with  one  or  two  teaspoonfuls  of  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  salol  and 
two  parts  of  subnitrate  of  bismuth  given  at  intervals  of  four  to  six 
hours  according  to  the  severity  of  the  case. 

White  Scours 

This  is  an  infectious  disease  contracted  through  the  freshly  broken 
navel  cord.  It  usually  occurs  within  a  day  or  two  after  the  calf  is 
born  and  runs  a  rapid  course.  If  one  calf  becomes  infected,  others 
are  liable  to  contract  the  disease  if  kept  in  the  same  stable.  The 
stall  should  be  kept  clean  and  thoroughly  disinfected.  As  a  protection 
against  this  disease,  it  is  well  to  dress  the  cord  very  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  doctor  dresses  the  navel  cord  of  the  new-born  babe.  A 
mild  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  creolin  should  be  applied  before  and 
after  the  dressing. 


SWINE 
Feed  and  Care 

SWINE-RAISING  is  a  feature  of  farming  that  deserves  careful  atten- 
tion. The  hog  is  a  great  factory.  It  rapidly  converts  many  products 
of  the  soil  into  human  food  which  usually  command  a  very  attractive 
price  the  world  over.  By  converting  corn  and  other  grains  into  pork, 
their  value  is  increased  above  the  market  value  of  the  grains,  provided 
the  factory  is  properly  managed.  If  the  scientific  side  of  feeding 
and  proper  care  is  ignored  and  the  theory  is  adopted  that  corn  alone 
is  the  hog's  natural  feed  and  a  balanced  ration  is  disregarded,  the  farmer 
will  secure  no  more  for  his  pork  than  the  market  value  of  the  corn 
and  other  grains.  While,  on  the  other  hand,  if  he  adopts  systems 
that  have  demonstrated  that  the  value  of  a  bushel  of  corn,  when 
properly  mixed  with  other  feeds,  can  be  greatly  increased,  he  will  find 
hog-raising  the  most  profitable  feature  of  farmimg. 

Too  often  the  value  of  a  good  pasture,  pure  water  and  an  abundance 
of  shade  during  the  summer  months  is  not  appreciated.  Young  pigs 
should  be  turned  into  a  mixed  pasture  of  clover,  alfalfa,  bluegrass, 
rape,  or  soy  beans  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible.  If  such  pastures 
are  not  available,  turn  them  on  winter  rye  which  usually  makes  an 
early  growth.  If  the  pigs  are  given  a  good  early  pasture,  which  is 
continued  through  the  summer  months,  they  will  make  a  very  rapid 
growth  with  but  little  corn  and  after  they  have  attained  a  weight  of 
160  or  175  pounds,  they  should  be  shut  up  and  finished  on  corn. 

The  farmer  must  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  pig  requires  protein 
during  its  early  growth,  and  without  it,  it  will  not  gain  very  rapidly. 
He  must  also  remember  that  after  a  reasonable  growth  has  been  attained 
it  should  be  given  a  carbohydrate  in  order  to  make  it  fat.  Protein  is 
secured  from  clover,  alfalfa,  cow  peas,  soy  beans  and  rape,  as  well  as 
in  other  pastures  mentioned.     Carbohydrates  are  contained  in  corn. 

Pigs  should  not  be  permitted  to  become  stunted  during  their  early 
growth,  for  such  a  condition  is  reflected  during  the  entire  life  of  the  hog. 

Pigs  and  hogs  should  not  be  shut  up  in  a  dirty  pen  and  given  corn  and 
swill  and  be  denied  exercise  and  a  good  pasture.  In  order  to  be  healthy 
and  make  a  rapid  growth,  they  require  a  balanced  ration,  fresh  air, 
exercise  and  an  abundance  of  pure  water.  Running  streams  and  mud 
wallows  are  not  conducive  to  good  health.  The  wallows  should  be 
made  of  cement  and  washed  out  every  few  days.  The  feeding  places 
should  also  be  of  cement. 

By  using  these  precautions,  the  farmer  will  go  a  long  way  toward  pre- 
venting cholera  and  other  diseases. 

In  order  to  keep  the  skin  healthy  and  the  pig  free  from  vermin,  it 
should  occasionally  be  dipped.     A  dipping  tank  can  be  constructed  of 


cement  at  little  cost,  and  the  pigs  can  be  run  through  the  tank  from 
time  to  time,  without  much  trouble. 

While  no  fixed  rules  regarding  feed  can  be  given  to  meet  all  classes  of 
pigs  and  conditions,  we  will  present  the  results  of  experiments  which 
have  been  successfully  tried  by  swine-raisers  and  experimental  stations. 

Jerusalem  Artichokes 

Mr.  A.  C.  Williams  of  Vinton,  Iowa,  a  very  prominent  and  successful 
breeder  of  Poland  Chinas,  says: 

"The  keep  of  my  hogs  in  warm  weather  consists  of  blue  grass,  clover 
and  Jerusalem  artichokes,  sometimes  called  Brazilian  artichokes. 
Forty  head  of  hogs  and  their  pigs  may  be  kept  without  other  food  on  an 
acre  of  artichokes  from  the  time  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  until  the 
first  of  June  and  from  September  or  October  until  the  ground  is  again 
frozen. 

"To  grow  them,  the  ground  should  be  rich,  plowed  eight  or  ten  inches 
deep,  the  tubers  cut  the  same  as  seed  potatoes  and  planted  from  early 
spring  to  June  10th,  ten  to  fifteen  inches  apart,  in  rows  that  are  three 
feet  apart,  planting  six  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre. 

"They  can  also  be  planted  in  the  fall,  from  October  15th  to  November 
15th,  but  the  tubers  should  not  be  cut  and  the  ground  should  be  thor- 
oughly rolled  after  planting. 

"If  planted  in  spring,  plenty  of  rain  in  July  and  August  will  make 
them  large  enough  to  turn  hogs  on  in  September;  otherwise,  not  until  a 
month  later.  If  in  foul  ground,  they  may,  when  three  or  four  inches 
high,  be  given  a  thorough  working  with  cultivators,  and  when  the  hogs 
have  been  removed  to  allow  a  new  crop  of  tubers  to  grow,  the  ground 
should  be  made  smooth  by  harrowing,  that  the  tops  may  be  cut  with  a 
mower  as  food  for  cattle  and  horses. 

"Enough  seed  will  remain  in  the  ground  for  another  crop,  but  they 
can  easily  be  eradicated  by  mowing  off  the  tops  and  plowing  the  ground 
deeply  in  July  and  the  early  part  of  August. 

The  Bra7ilian  artichoke  is  red  and  does  not  spread  or  scatter  like  the 
wild,  white  variety  and  produces  more  hog  feed  to  the  acre  than  any 
crop  I  am  acquainted  with.  The  hogs  will  harvest  the  crop  them- 
selves. 

"Hogs  taken  from  the  artichoke  pastures  to  clover  and  blue  grass  will 
not  root  up  the  sod,  as  they  are  free  from  intestinal  worms,  constipa- 
tion, indigestion  and  fever,  caused  by  feeding  corn  in  winter." 

A  Good  Plan — Let  the  Hogs  Do 
the  Harvesting 

Have  four  lots  as  follows: 

Lot  No.  1  is  sown  to  rye  early  in  the  fall  and  seeded  to  clover  early  in 
the  spring. 


Lot  No.  2  is  sown  to  alfalfa  during  the  summer  or  early  fall. 

Lot  No.  3  is  planted  to  sweet  corn  and  cow  peas  in  the  spring. 

Lot  No.  4  is  planted  to  field  com. 

In  the  spring  turn  the  pigs  into  the  rye  lot.  They  will  eat  down  the 
rye  and  tramp  the  clover  seed  into  the  ground.  After  they  have  been  in 
the  rye  for  one  month,  turn  them  into  the  alfalfa  lot.  When  the  rye 
is  nearly  ripe,  turn  them  back  into  the  rye  field.  After  the  rye  is  eaten 
down,  turn  them  into  the  sweet  corn  and  cow  peas,  leaving  the  gates 
open  into  the  rye  and  alfalfa  lots.  Between  the  young  clover,  alfalfa, 
cow  peas  and  corn,  the  pigs  will  be  ready  for  market  when  the  corn  is 
gone.  The  corn  in  Lot  No.  4  is  husked  and  fed  to  the  brood  sows  during 
the  winter.  By  adopting  this  plan,  the  hogs  do  most  of  the  harvesting 
and  the  farmer  secures  from  $40.00  to  $50.00  per  acre  from  his  land. 

Rape 

Rape  is  a  very  valuable  pasture  for  pigs  of  all  ages.  It  makes  a  rapid 
rank  growth  in  rich  ground,  reaching  a  height  of  a  foot  or  more  in  six  or 
eight  weeks.  Pigs  can  be  turned  in  at  any  time  after  it  is  six  or  eight 
inches  high.  Pigs  on  a  rape  pasture  should  be  given  a  little  corn  or  other 
grain. 

Pigs  make  a  greater  gain  on  rape  than  on  clover  and  the  amount  of 
concentrates  required  per  one  hundred  pounds  gain  is  less.  In  speaking 
of  the  importance  of  legumes,  rape  and  roots,  Henry  says: 

"If  this  country  is  to  make  any  further  great  advancement  in  pork 
production,  such  progress  must  come  in  no  small  measure  through  the 
wider  and  more  intelligent  use  of  legumes,  rape  and  roots.  Because  the 
hog  shows  supreme  fondness  for  corn  and  because  that  grain  is  widely 
and  easily  grown,  we  have  come  to  think  of  corn  and  the  hog  as  the 
beginning  and  end  of  pork  production.  It  is  true  we  provide  meagerly 
of  other  feeds,  but  grudgingly  and  under  protest,  as  it  were,  regarding 
anything  other  than  corn  as  something  to  be  given  in  small  amount 
rather  than  liberally.  Let  us  now  change  the  viewpoint  and  hold  that 
it  is  not  only  best,  but  also  more  economical  to  grow  the  pig  largely  on 
the  legumes,  rape  and  roots,  and  use  a  heavy  allowance  of  com  for  fat- 
tening only.  The  feeder  who  will  conduct  his  operations  on  this  basis 
will  find  his  pork  output  greatly  increased  and  his  income  correspond- 
ingly advanced.  Instead  of  measuring  the  possible  pork  output  by  the 
quantity  of  corn  available,  one  should  figure  on  what  is  possible  from 
all  the  available  corn  plus  the  gains  that  the  pigs  can  make  from  the 
freest  use  of  all  such  crops  as  alfalfa,  clover,  Canada  peas,  soy  beans, 
cow  peas,  peanuts,  rape  and  roots  that  the  farm  will  economically  grow. 
By  the  wisest  and  largest  use  of  these  crops  throughout  the  land,  the 
amount  of  pork  now  produced  in  the  United  States  can  easily  be 
doubled  without  any  corresponding  increase  in  the  total  cost  of  produc- 
tion.    The  large  and  general  use  of  the  legumes,  rape  and  roots  by  those 

237 


who  raise  swine  means  larger  litters  of  pigs,  a  reduction  in  the  present 
heavy  death-rate  of  the  young  and  the  more  rapid  growth  of  sturdy, 
vigorous  young  hogs  that  will  finally  fatten  more  quickly  and  on  less 
corn  than  under  the  still  too  common  system  of  well-nigh  continuous 
corn  feeding  from  birth  to  slaughter." 

Growing  legumes  and  roots  will  so  improve  the  soil  that  all  of  the  feed 
from  this  source  which  is  fed  to  the  pig  is  produced  at  small  cost.  Fields 
as  well  as  pigs  will  be  benefited  by  this  rational  expansion  which  should 
rapidly  come  in  our  system  of  pork  production  through  combining  the 
feeding  of  legumes  and  roots  with  the  proper  use  of  corn  and  the  other 
cereal    grains. 

Peanuts 

Peanuts  are  regarded  in  the  South  as  a  very  desirable  feed  for  pigs. 
They  require  no  more  attention  than  corn  and  the  production  of  nuts  is 
very  large.  The  pigs  are  turned  in  the  field  when  the  beans  are  matured. 

At  the  Alabama  Station,  Gray,  Duggar  and  Ridgeway  fed  three  lots 
of  61-pound  pigs  for  60  days  upon  the  rations  shown  in  the  table  fol- 
lowing to  determine  the  value  of  peanuts  in  supplementing  corn  for  fat- 
tening pigs. 

PEANUTS  AS  A  SUPPLEMENT  TO  CORN 


Average  Ration 

Average 
Daily 
Gain, 
Lbs. 

Feed  for  100  Lbs.  Gain 

Concentrates, 
Lbs. 

Peanut  Pasture, 
Acres 

Lot  1— 

Corn,  3.8  pounds 

0.7 
0.9 

1.0 

560 

177 

158 

Lot  2— 

Corn   1.6  pounds 

Foraging  peanut  field 

Lot  3— 

Corn    1.1  pounds 

0.12 

Cotton-seed  meal,  0.5  pounds__- 
Foraging  peanut  field 

0.08 

The  table  shows  that  pigs  fed  3.8  pounds  corn  gained  only  0.7  pounds 
daily,  while  those  getting  1.6  pounds  of  corn  daily  and  foraging  in  the 
peanut  field,  gained  0.9  pounds.  Lot  3,  fed  two  parts  corn  and  one  part 
cotton-seed  meal  while  in  the  peanut  field  made  slightly  larger  gains 
than  Lot  2  on  corn  and  peanuts.  It  was  found  that  one  acre  of  good 
peanuts  was  equal  to  about  3,200  pounds  of  corn  in  feeding  value. 

The  Arkansas  Station  reports  the  following: 

One  acre  of  peanuts  gave  1,252  pounds  gain.  One  acre  of  corn  gave 
436  pounds  gain. 

Peanuts,  being  rich  in  protein,  should  be  supplemented  with  corn  to 
secure  hard,  sweet  pork.  The  digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds  of 
peanut  kernels  are:  crude  protein,  25.1  pounds;  carbohydrates,  13.7 
pounds,  and  fat,  35.6  pounds. 


Skim  Milk 

Skim  milk,  being  rich  in  protein  and  ash,  is  valuable  as  a  muscle  and 
bone  builder,  but  to  secure  the  best  results,  it  should  be  mixed  with  corn 
or  other  starchy  grains  in  the  right  proportion  to  make  a  balanced  ration. 
A  good  plan  is  to  mix  a  little  corn  meal  with  the  milk. 

Beach  fed  25-pound  pigs  on  skim  milk  alone;  also  in  combination  with 
grain,  during  an  86-day  trial  with  the  following  results: 

FEEDING  SEPARATOR  SKIM  MILK  ALONE  AND  IN  COMBINATION  WITH  GRAIN 


Average  Ration 

Average 
Daily 
Gain, 
Lbs. 

Feed  for  100  Lbs.  Gain 

Skim  Milk                   Grain, 
Lbs.                          Lbs. 

Lot  1  — 

Skim  milk,  19.7  lbs. 

0.72 

1.28 

1.38 
0.47 

2,739 

1,341 

935 

Lot  2— 

Skim  milk,  17.2  lbs 

Grain,  2.2  lbs 

168 

Lot  3— 

Skim  milk,  12.9  lbs .   _ 

Grain,  3.2  lbs .   . 

233 

Lot  4— 

Grain,  2.1  lbs. 

445 

This  trial  shows  a  loss  from  feeding  even  young  pigs  entirely  on  skim 
milk,  for  when  so  fed,  they  required  over  2,700  pounds  of  milk  for  100 
pounds  of  gain.  By  feeding  meal  with  the  milk,  far  more  rapid  and 
economical  gains  were  made.  Skim  milk,  rich  in  protein  and  mineral 
matter,  should  always  be  combined  with  starchy  carbohydrates  such  as 
corn,  barley,  KafRr,  milo,  etc.,  in  which  case  it  becomes  one  of  the  most 
useful  of  all  available  feeds  for  the  pig. 


SKIM  MILK  RATIONS  FOR  PIGS 

By  Goessman 

Weight  of  Pigs, 

Lbs. 

Food 

Nutritive  Ratio 

20  to    80 

2 

ounces  corn  meal  to  each  quart 

skim  milk. 

1  to  3 

80  to  125 

4 

ounces  corn  meal  to  each  quart 

skim  milk. 

1  to  4 

125  to  190 

6 

ounces  corn  meal  to  each  quart 

skim  milk. 

1  to  4.5 

I 


Each  animal  is  given  as  much  of  the  mixture  as  he  will  eat. 

Henry  found  that  the  use  of  these  two  feeds,  in  the  proportions  of  one 
pound  of  corn  meal  to  three  pounds  of  skim  milk,  resulted  in  the  pro- 
duction of  a  pound  of  pork  on  a  smaller  number  of  pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients  than  grains  alone  or  corn  meal  and  skim  milk  in  any  other 
proportions. 

Extensive  experiments  convinced  Henry  that  462  pounds  of  skim  milk 
effected  a  saving  of  100  pounds  of  corn  meal. 

239 


Corn,  Soy-Bean  Pasture,  Tankage  and 
Cotton-Seed  Meal 

The  Alabama  Station  in  Bulletin  No.  154  gives  some  very  interest- 
ing results  from  the  above  mentioned  feeds.  For  comparison  the 
follovnng  prices  are  used. 

Corn ,  per  bushel $     .70 

Tankage,  per  ton 40.00 

Cotton-seed  Meal,  per  ton 30.00 

Soy-Bean  Pasture,  per  acre 8.00 

The  summary  of  the  results  are  as  follows: 

Prices  realized  from  each  bushel  of  corn  when  fed  in  connection 
with  soy-bean  pasture,  with  tankage,  with  cotton-seed  meal,  and  when 
fed  alone. 

AVERAGE  OF  THREE  YEARS 


LoV                        I^^^i^^ 

Selling  Price  of  Corn  when  Hogs  Sell  at: 

5  Cents       6  Cents 

7  Cents 

8  Cents 

1 
2 
3 
4 

Corn,  I  ration,  soy-bean  pasture  _ 
Corn,  §  ration,  soy-bean  pasture  _ 
Corn,  f  ration,  soy-bean  pasture- 
Corn  alone 

$2.68           $3.55 

1.37             1.77 

1.29              1.61 

.46      !           .55 

$4.33 

2.18 

1.93 

.64 

1.15 

.97 

$5.15 

2.58 

2.25 

.74 

1 

Corn,  9-10  tankage,  1-10 

Corn, 9-10;  cotton-seed  meal, 1-10 

.78 
.67 

.96 

.82 

1.34 
1.12 

The  following  table  from  the  same  bulletin  is  also  very  interesting. 

SOY    BEAN   PASTURES  VS.    CORN   ALONE   AND    THE   MOST   PROFITABLE  AMOUNT   OF 

CORN  TO  USE  WITH  THE  PASTURE 

Average  of  Three  Years  Work 


Lot 
No. 

Ration 

Average 

Daily 

Gains, 

Lbs. 

Feed 
to    Make 
100   Lbs. 
of  Pork, 

Lbs. 

Cost  of 

Grain 

to    Make 

100  Lbs. 

of  Pork 

Grain 

Plus 
Pasture 

Cost 

to    Make 

100  Lbs. 

of  Pork 

Value 

One 

Acre  in 

terms  of 

Corn, 
Bushels 

1 

Corn,  \  ration 

Soy-bean  pasture 

1.102 

68             $0.85 
.218  Acr. 

$2.59    j       44 

2 

Corn,  i  ration 1    1 .  006 

Soy-bean  pasture 

138                1.73 
.204  Acr. 

3.36          41 

3 

Corn,  a  ration 

Soy-bean  pasture 

1.329    I  175               2.19    i      3.17    ,       63 
.123  Acr.                  1 

1 

4 

Corn  alone |       .375      609         1      7.61 

7.61    1 

Following   taken   from   Henry: 

"Field  Feeding  Corn.  Gaumnit/,  Wilson,  and  Bassett  of  the 
Minnesota  Station  turned  one  lot  of  pigs  into  ripe  standing  corn  and 
fed  another  lot  ear  corn  in  a  yard,  with  the  results  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table.  Rape  sown  broadcast  in  the  corn  field  before  the  last  culti- 
vation furnished  succulent  feed  to  the  foraging  lot,  and  both  lots 

240 


received  an  allowance  of  wheat  shorts.     The  amount  of  corn  eaten  in 
the  field  was  carefully  estimated. 

FIELD  FEEDING  OF  CORN  COMPARED  WITH  FEEDING  CORN  IN   YARD 


How  Fed 

Number 

of 
Pigs  Fed 

Length 

of 

Trial  Days 

Average 

Daily  Gain, 

Lbs. 

Ear  Corn 
and  Shorts 
for  100  Lbs 
Gain,  Lbs. 

First  Trial- 
Lot  1,  foraging  corn 

Lot  2,  fed  ear  corn 

26 
13 

49 
49 

1.3 
1.0 

835 
1,042 

Second  Trial- 
Lot  1 ,  foraging  corn 32 

Lot  2,  fed  ear  corn 8 

61 
61 

14 
1.1 

635 
.677 

Corn-and-Cob  Meal 

The  studies  of  the  stations  on  the  merits  of  corn-and-cob  meal 
for  swine  feeding  have  shown  widely  discordant  results.  Those  of 
Kennedy  and  Robbins  of  the  Iowa  Station,  which  are  by  far  the  most 
detailed,  complete,  and  satisfactory,  are  condensed  in  the  following 
table : 

CORN-AND-COB  MEAL  COMPARED  WITH  WHOLE  CORN  AND  CORN  MEAL  FOR  PIGS 


Kind  of  Corn  Fed 

Average 

Weight  at 

Beginning, 

Lbs. 

Average 

Daily  Gain, 

Lbs. 

Corn  for 

100  Lbs. 

Gain,  Lbs. 

Lbs.  Gain 

Per  Bushel 

of  Corn 

Dry  ear  corn 

Soaked  shelled  corn 

148 
134 

0.74 
0.63 

456 
513 

595 
555 

12  3 
10.9 

Dry  corn  meal 

Soaked  corn  meal 

128                0.61 
145                0.72 

9.4 
10:1 

Dry  corn-and-cob  meal 118                 0  51 

Soaked  corn-and-cob  meal 123                 0  56 

604 
583 

9  3 
9.6 

Gluten  Meal 

At  the  Cornell  Station,  Clinton  compared  gluten  meal  and  skim 
milk  with  corn  meal  and  skim  milk,  feeding  two  lots,  each  of  eight 
pigs  averaging  70  lbs.,  for  50  days  with  the  results  shown  below: 

GLUTEN  MEAL  COMPARED  WITH  CORN  MEAL 


Average  Ration 

Daily  Gain, 
Lbs. 

Total  Gain, 
Lbs. 

Meal,  Lbs. 

Milk,  Lbs. 

Lot  1  — 

Gluten  meal,  2.4  lbs.    . 
Skim  milk,  6.4  lbs 

^/^          0.9 

46 

255 

684 

Lot  2— 

Corn  meal.  2.7  lbs 

Skim  milk,  7.3  lbs 

'.'/.          1.3 

65 

206 

569 

241 


Wheat  Shorts 


In  a  60-day  trial  at  the  New  Hampshire  Station,  Shaw  compared 
wheat  shorts  with  corn  meal  as  a  feed  for  47-lb.  pigs,  obtaining  the 
results    shown    below : 

LOW-GRADE  WHEAT  SHORTS  COMPARED  WITH  CORN 


Average  Ration 


Average 

Daily  Gain, 

Lbs. 


Feed  for  100  Lbs.  Gain 


Concen-      Skim  Milk, 
trates,Lbs.  Lbs. 


Lot  1— 

Wheat  shorts,  2.2  lbs 

Lot  2— 

Corn  meal,  3.0  lbs.. . 

Lot  3— 

Wheat  shorts,  2.1  lbs, 
Skim  milk,  8.3  lbs.__ 

Lot  4— 

Corn  meal,  3.2  lbs.  ^  _ 
Skim  milk,  13.0  lbs._ 


0.3 
0.5 


787 


591 


0.5 


1.3 


412 


255 


1,647 


1,019 


In  this  trial  the  wheat  shorts  proved  unsatisfactory  for  young  pigs, 
whether  fed  alone  or  with  skim  milk.  They  were  doubtless  ground 
over  bran  with  mill  dust  and  sweepings  added,  judging  by  the  results. 
Such  feed  has  little  value  compared  with  cost  and  should  be  avoided 
by  the  pig  feeder. 

Oats 

At  the  Wisconsin  Station  Henry  fed  whole  and  ground  oats  with 
corn  meal  to  115-lb.  pigs  for  60  days  with  the  following  results: 

WHOLE  OATS  COMPARED  WITH  GROUND  OATS 


Feed 

Average 

Ration, 

Lbs. 

Average 

Daily  Gain 

Lbs. 

Feed  for 
100  Lbs. 
Gain, Lbs. 

Whole  Oats- 
Lot  1 ,  5  oats,  I  corn  meal 

Lot  2,  ^  oats,  1  corn  meal 

3.8 
4.0 

0.68 
0.82 

564 
492 

Ground  Oats — 

Lot  1 ,  f  oats,  I  corn  meal  _      

Lot  2,  ^  oats,  f  corn  meal 

4  4 
5.1 

1.03 
1.27 

429 
402 

We  observe  that  the  pigs  getting  whole  oats  ate  less  feed  and  gave 
poorer  returns  than  those  fed  ground  oats.  The  best  returns  were 
with  a  ration  of  one-third  ground  oats  and  two-thirds  ground  corn. 
In  both  trials  the  feed  requirements  for  100  lbs.  of  gain  were  very 
low  where  ground  oats  were  used,  showing  the  high  value  of  ground 
oats  when   combined   with   corn. 

242 


Sugar  Beets 

At  the  Utah  Station  Clark  feed  sugar  beets,  wet  beet  pulp,  and  beet 
molasses  in  combination  with  wheat  shorts  to  4  lots  of  130-lb.  pigs 
for  48  days  with  the  results  shown  below: 

SUGAR  BEETS,  BEET  PULP  AND  BEET  MOLASSES  FED  TO  PIGS 


Daily 
Gain, 
Lbs. 

1.7 

Feed  for  100  Lbs.  Gain 

Average  Ration 

Shorts, 
Lbs. 

Beet 
Pulp, 
Lbs. 

Sugar 

Beets, 

Lbs. 

Molasses 
Lbs. 

Lot  1— 

Shorts,  7.6  lbs. 

444 

... 

Lot  2— 

Shorts,  3.2  lbs 

1.2 
1  2 

1.6 

268 

697 

Sugar  beets,  8.3  lbs. 

1 

Lot  3— 

Shorts,  3.3  lbs 

Beet  pulp,  12.3  lbs 

275         1,030 

.... 

_.- 

Lot  4— 

Shorts,  3.0  lbs.        ..         .    ... 

186      i      600 

... 

Beet  pulp,  9.4  lbs. 

281 

Beet  molasses,  4.4  lbs 

Feeding  Potatoes 

In  two  trials  at  the  Wisconsin  Station,  potatoes  were  cooked  in  an 
open  kettle,  using  as  little  water  as  possible,  and  corn  meal  added 
to  form  a  thick  mush  which  was  eaten  by  pigs  with  great  relish.  Corn 
meal  wet  with  water  was  fed  to  a  second  lot  for  comparison.  The 
results  were  as  follows: 

440  lbs,  of  corn  meal,  fed  alone,  produced  100  lbs.  of  gain.  262  lbs. 
of  corn  meal  with  786  lbs.  of  potatoes,  weighed  before  cooking,  produced 
100  lbs.  of  gain. 

From  this  we  learn  that  786  lbs.  of  potatoes  when  fed  to  pigs  after 
being  cooked,  effected  a  saving  of  178  lbs.  of  corn  meal,  442  lbs.  of 
potatoes  taking  the  place  of  100  lbs.  of  corn  meal. 

At  the  Copenhagen  Station  Fjord  found  400  lbs.  of  cooked  potatoes 
equal  to  100  lbs.  of  mixed  grain  for  swine.  Since  corn  has  a  somewhat 
higher  feeding  value  than  the  grains  used  by  Fjord,  it  is  fair  to  hold 
that  4.5  bu.  (of  60  lbs.  each)  of  potatoes  after  cooking  are  equal  to 
one  bushel  (56  lbs.)  of  corn  in  pig  feeding,  Grisdale  of  the  Ottawa 
Experimental  Farm  reports  that  raw  potatoes  alone  will  scarcely 
maintain  life  in  pigs,  but  if  given  in  small  quantities  with  grain  they 
help  to  keep  them  in  health  when  other  succulent  food  is  lacking. 


843 


FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 

TO  obtain  the  best  results  from  feeds  in  this  department,  skill  and 
judgment  are  required,  not  only  in  feeding,  but  in  care  and  selec- 
tion of  breeds.  While  opinions  differ  regarding  the  care  that  should  be 
given  cattle  on  full  feed,  there  should  be  but  one  opinion  regarding  the 
question  of  protection  against  bad  storms  and  severely  cold  weather. 

While  the  natural  heat  of  the  body  is  sufficient  to  maintain  a  normal 
temperature  without  drawing  upon  reserve  fat  during  ordinary  weather, 
it  is  very  certain  that  during  extremely  cold  spells  an  extra  amount  of 
fuel  is  required  to  maintain  the  heat  of  the  body  and  that  it  is  taken 
from  the  reserve  store  of  accumulated  fat.  At  the  same  time,  an  abun- 
dance of  fresh  air  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  exercise  is  necessary  to 
maintain  a  healthy  digestion.  It  is  just  as  reasonable  to  suppose  that  a 
house  unprotected  during  zero  weather  would  require  no  more  fuel  to 
maintain  a  comfortable  temperature  than  one  protected,  as  to  suppose 
that  an  animal  would  maintain  its  normal  temperature  when  exposed  to 
zero  weather  or  colder  on  the  same  amount  of  fuel  as  it  would  in  comfort- 
able quarters. 

Open  Shed  vs.  Confinement 

Waters,  of  the  Missouri  Station,  housed  a  bunch  of  dehorned  fatten- 
ing steers  in  comfortable,  well-bedded  quarters  during  the  winter.  They 
were  turned  out  for  water  at  nine  o'clock  each  morning,  remaining  in  the 
yard  until  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  except  during  stormy  weather, 
when  they  were  out  only  long  enough  to  drink.  Another  similar  bunch 
was  fed  in  an  open  shed  located  in  a  small  lot.  The  average  returns  for 
four  winters  were: 


Daily  gain  per  steer 

Gain  per  bushel  of  corn 

Digestible  matter  eaten  per  pound  of  gain. 


In  Barn, 
Pounds 

1.7 

4.9 

11.3 


In  Open  Shed 
Pounds 


1.9 

5.2 

10.3 


It  is  seen  that  the  steers  running  in  an  open  shed  made  greater  gains 
than  those  confined  in  a  close  barn.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the 
open  shed  they  were  in  a  great  measure  protected  from  the  cold  and  at 
the  same  time  given  a  reasonable  amount  of  exercise,  while  in  the  closed 
barn  they  did  not  receive  a  sufficient  amount  of  fresh  air  nor  enough 
exercise  to  maintain  active  digestion. 

Box-Fed  and  Stall-Fed 

At  the  Ontario  Station  it  was  found  that  box-fed  steers  made  larger 
and  cheaper  gains  than  steers  tied  in  stalls. 

The  above  demonstrates  that  even  a  limited  amount  of  exercise  is 
beneficial. 

244 


Balanced  Rations 

Beef  cattle  require,  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results,  a  balanced 
ration.  During  the  growing  stage,  they  should  receive  feed  rich  in  pro- 
tein or  what  is  known  as  a  narrow  ration.  During  the  latter  end  of  the 
feeding  period,  when  an  accumulation  of  fat  is  desired,  the  ration  should 
be  widened,  or,  in  other  words,  should  contain  a  greater  amount 
of  carbohydrates. 

The  following  table  furnished  by  Winters  is  strictly  in  keeping  with 
thousands  of  other*  trials  of  like  character  showing  the  difference 
between  a  well-balanced  and  an  unbalanced  ration.  In  this  trial,  there 
were  four  steers  in  each  bunch.  In  each  trial  the  same  amount  of  corn 
was  given  to  the  different  lots  and  all  the  hay  they  would  eat. 

Pounds 


4  steers  fed  104  days  corn  and  timothy  hay,  gain I  .260 

4  steers  fed  104  days  corn  and  cow  pea  hay,  gain 624 

4  steers  fed    80  days  corn  and  timothy  hay,  gain 318 

4  steers  fed    80  days  corn  and  clover  hay,  gain 640 

4  steers  fed    80  days  corn  and  millet  hay,  gain 119 

4  steers  fed  105  days  corn  and  timothy  hay,  gain 789 

4  steers  fed  105  days  corn  and  clover  hay,  gain  _____    1135 

4  steers  fed  105  days  corn  and  cow  pea  hay,  gain 1134 


Feeding  Corn  in  Various  Forms  to  Steers 

Mumford  of  the  Illinois  Station  fed  four  lots  of  choice  feeders,  aver- 
aging about  1,000  pounds  each  for  186  days.  Lots  3  and  4  contained 
ten  steers  each,  and  the  other  lots  fifteen  steers  each.  Pigs  following 
the  steers  worked  over  the  droppings.  Each  lot  was  given  clover  hay 
for  roughage,  a  limited  allowance  of  gluten  meal  being  fed  in  the  first 
half  and  of  oil  meal  in  the  second  half  of  the  trial.  As  the  table  shows, 
Lot  1  was  fed  ear  corn.  Lot  2  corn-and-cob  meal,  Lot  3  shelled  corn, 
Lot  4  corn  meal,  Lot  5  ear  corn  and  shock  corn,  this  lot  being  fed  no 
gluten  meal. 

Lot  2,  fed  corn-and-cob  meal,  made  neither  larger  nor  more  econom- 
ical gains  than  Lot  1,  fed  ear  corn,  while  the  pigs  following  the  steers 
getting  ear  corn  made  decidedly  better  gains  than  those  following  the 
steers  fed  corn-and-cob  meal. 

Lot  3,  getting  shelled  corn,  made  the  poorest  gains,  due  to  the  fact, 
Mumford  tells  us,  that  these  steers  did  not  masticate  their  corn  so 
thoroughly  as  the  others.  While  about  the  same  amount  of  concen- 
trates was  required  for  100  pounds  gain  as  with  the  preceding  lots,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  ear  corn  and  the  corn-and-cob  meal 
rations  contained  over  17  per  cent  cob.  Thus,  shelled  corn  proved 
inferior  to  ear  corn  or  corn-and-cob  meal  in  beef  production. 


FEEDING  CORN  TN  VARIOUS  FORMS  TO  STEERS 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 
Lbs. 

Average 
Gain 

per  head. 
Lbs. 

Feed  for  100  Lbs. 
Gain 

Gain  of  Pigs 

per  100  Lbs. 

Corn  Fed  to 

Steers, 

Lbs. 

Average  Ration 

Concen- 
trates, 
Lbs. 

Rough- 
ages, 
Lbs. 

Lot  1— 

Ear  corn,  20.1  lbs 

Gluten  or  oil  meal,  2.9  lbs. 
Clover  hay,  8.0  lbs 

2.3 

434 

986 

344 

1.7 

Lot  2— 

Corn-and-cob  meal  20  lbs. 
Gluten  or  oil  meal,  2.9  lbs.. 
Clover  hay,  8.1  lbs 

2.3 

432 

993            350 

0.5 

Lot  3— 

Shelled  corn,  16.6  lbs 

Gluten  or  oil  meal,  3.0  lbs.. 
Clover  hay,  9.0  lbs 

2.0 

370 

984            454 

3.6 

Lot  4— 

Corn  meal,  16.6  lbs 

Gluten  or  oil  meal,  2.9  lbs.. 
Clover  hay,  8.7  lbs 

2.4 

443 

822 

370 

0  7 

Lot  5— 

Ear  corn,  13.5  lbs 

Oil  meal,  1.4  lbs 

Shock  corn,  14.7  lbs 

Clover  hay,  7.2  lbs 

2.1 

388 

*991 

782 

1.8 

*Including  ear  corn  in  the  shock  corn. 

The  steers  in  Lot  4,  fed  corn  meal,  made  the  largest  gains,  and 
required  164  pounds  less  concentrates  for  100  pounds  gain  than  those 
fed  shelled  corn.  Considering  the  low  gains  of  the  pigs  following  the 
corn-meal-fed  steers,  corn  meal  was  no  more  efficient  than  shelled  corn 
for  combined  beef  and  pork  production.  Ear  corn  proved  the  most 
economical  form  of  corn  for  combined  gains  of  steers  and  hogs. 

Good  Rations 

The  following  combinations  are  very  desirable.  The  amount  of 
the  various  feeds  can  be  changed  to  suit  conditions.  The  farmer 
must  remember  that  some  steers  are  larger  and  have  a  greater  capacity 
than  others  and  some  steers  take  on  fat  more  readily  than  others, 
hence  he  should  add  to  or  take  from  the  ration,  carbohydrates  and 
protein  as  may  seem  advisable. 


Ration  No.  1 — 

Clover  or  alfalfa  hay 

Corn  silage 

Corn  meal  or  kaffir  corn  meal 

Bran 

246 


Pounds 
6 

18 

12  to  15 

2  to    3 


Ration  No.  2 — 

Alfalfa  or  clover  hay 

Corn  meal 

Barley,  either  whole  or  ground 
Ground  oats 

Ration  No.  3 — 

Mixed  hays 

Silage 

Oats 

Cotton-seed  meal 

Ration  No.  4 — • 

Cow  pea  or  soy  bean  hay 

Corn  silage 

Oats  or  barley 

Ration  No.  5 — 

Clover  hay 

Gluten  or  oil  meal 

Corn  meal 

Ration  No.  6 — 

Clover,  alfalfa  or  cow  pea  hay. 

Cprn-and-cob  meal 

Gluten  or  oil  meal 


Pounds 

8  to  10 

10 

3 

5 


Pounds 

7 

25 

10 

1    . 


Pounds 

15 

25 

5 


Pounds 

10 

3 

16 


Pounds 

10 

20 

2 


Sugar-Beet  Pulp 

Carlyle  and  Griffith  of  the  Colorado  Station  divided  a  bunch  of 
forty-eight  956-lb.  steers  of  mixed  breeding  and  below  average  in  quality 
into  four  lots  of  12  each,  giving  alfalfa  hay  of  poor  quality  to  all  with- 
out limit.  Sugar-beet  pulp  was  fed  without  limit  to  two  lots  twice  a 
day.  Coarse  corn  meal  was  fed  for  concentrates  to  lots  1  and  2,  the 
allowance  starting  with  two  pounds  per  steer  daily  and  being  gradually 
increased   during   the   100-day   trial. 


VALUE  OF  WET  BEET  PULP  IN  STEER  FEEDING 


Average  Ration 

Average 
Daily 
Gain, 
Lbs. 

Average 
Gain 

per  head. 
Lbs. 

Feed  for  100  Lbs.  Gain 

Corn, 
Lbs. 

Hay, 
Lbs. 

Pulp, 
Lbs. 

Lot  1  — 

Beet  pulp,  93.4  lbs ,_    . 

Alfalfa  hay,  20.0  lbs 

Corn,  6.6  lbs..    

2,6 

263 

251 

759 

3,545 

Lot  2— 

Alfalfa  hay,  31.3  lbs.    .... 
Corn,  6.6  lbs....    

1.8 

176 

376 

1.778 

Lot  3— 

Beet  pulp,  97.3  lbs. 

1.8 

184 

1,189  . 

Alfalfa  hay,  21.9  lbs. 

5,283 

Lot  4— 

Alfalfa  hay,  41.5  lbs 

1  5 

147 

-    -      , 

2,829 

The  table  shows  that  each  steer  in  lot  1  consumed  over  93  lbs.  of 
beet  pulp  daily  in  addition  to  20  lbs.  of  alfalfa  hay  and  6.6  lbs.  corn 
meal.  On  this  ration  they  made  the  excellent  daily  gain  of  2.6  lbs.  each, 
gaining  263  lbs.  in  100  days.  With  alfalfa  hay,  beet  pulp,  and  no 
grain,  the  steers  of  lot  3  gained  1.8  lbs.  against  1.5  lbs.  daily  for 
lot  4  on  alfalfa  hay  alone.  These  investigators  report  that  through- 
out the  trial  the  pulp-fed  steers  were  more  uniformly  thrifty  than  those 
getting  no  pulp.  They  estimate  that  for  two-year-old  fattening  steers 
9  lbs.  of  wet  sugar-beet  pulp  proved  equal  to  2.8  lbs.  of  alfalfa  hay  or 
1  lb.  of  ground  corn. 

Dried-Beet  Pulp 

Shaw  and  Norton  of  the  Michigan  Station  found  as  a  result  of  three 
winter  trials  that  dried  beet  pulp  tended  to  growth  with  cattle  rather 
than  to  fattening,  and  conclude  that  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  feeding 
period  dried  pulp  can  be  fed  advantageously  in  large  quantities  because 
of  its  cheapness  and  ability  to  produce  rapid  gains.  During  the  finish- 
ing period,  however,  it  should  be  largely  replaced  by  corn  meal.  A 
1000-lb.  steer  will  not  consume  over  10  lb.  of  dried  beet  pulp  daily. 

Salt  and  pure  water  should  be  accessible  to  fattening  cattle  at  all 
times.  It  is  estimated  that  a  steer  requires  not  less  than  10  gallons 
water  per  day  and  1^  ounces  of  salt.  Hogs  running  with  cattle  should 
have  a  separate   drinking  place. 


FEEDING  SHEEP  AND  LAMBS 

Lambs 

INASMUCH  as  the  quantity  and  quality  of  milk  vary  greatly  in 
different  breeds  of  sheep,  in  feeding  a  lamb  before  it  is  weaned 
the  amount  of  milk  and  butter-fat  produced  by  the  mother  should  be 
taken  into  consideration.  Careful  experiments  made  by  the  Wisconsin 
Station  give  the  following  amount  of  milk  and  per  cent  of  butter-fat 
from  the  different  breeds. 


Breed 

Average  Daily- 
Milk  Yield, 
Pounds 

Fat, 
Per  Cent 

Oxford                                                            

3.1 
19 
4  3 
2  5 
2.3 
2.7 

7.7 

Southdown                              -             .    -  -           _      , 

8.4 

Dorset                            _-.      _       - 

7.2 

Shropshire                 ___     .__ 

5.9 

6.0 

Range 

7.2 

■ 

248 

Grain  Feeding  Lambs  Before  Weaning 


At  the  Wisconsin  Station  Craig  fed  various  grains  to  unweaned 
high-grade  Shropshire  lambs  for  periods  averaging  ten  weeks.  The 
lambs  were  induced  to  eat  grain  as  early  as  possible  and  were  given 
all  they  could  consume  in  a  trough  accessible  at  all  times  through  a 
"creep,"  which  shut  out  the  dams.  A  summary  of  four  trials  is  here 
shown, 

FEEDING  VARIOUS  GRAINS  TO  LAMBS  BEFORE  WEANING 


Grain  Fed 

Average 
Daily 
Grain 
Con- 
sump- 
tion, 
Lbs. 

Average 
Weight 
at  Begin- 
ning, 
Lbs. 

Average 
Daily 
Gain, 
Lbs. 

Average 
Total 
Gain, 
Lbs. 

Grain 
Fed  for 
100  Lbs. 

Gain, 

Lbs. 

Corn  meal 

Whole  oats   _ . 

0  4             39 
0.4             44 

0.51 
0  53 
0.48 
0.53 

35.8 
37.0 
33.6 
37.0 

74 
78 

Wheat  bran 

0  3             43 

71 

Cracked  peas _ 

04 

37 

81 

Corn  meal  gave  good  returns  in  these  trials,  especially  when  cost 
is  considered.  This  feed  is  one  of  the  best  for  unweaned  lambs  designed 
for  the  butcher,  since  it  puts  on  much  fat.  For  unweaned  lambs  which 
are  to  go  into  the  breeding  flock,  at  least  one-half  of  the  concentrates 
should  be  such  as  were  fed  to  the  other  lots  in  these  trials.  Oats  and 
peas  are  rich  in  crude  protein  and  one  or  both  can  be  grown  on  almost 
any  farm  in  America.  Where  not  available,  bran  can  take  their  place. 
The  large  daily  gains  made  by  these  unweaned  lamibs  and  the  small 
amount  of  grain  required  in  addition  to  the  dam's  milk  for  a  given 
gain  forcefully  illustrates  the  principal  that  young  animals  give  the 
best  returns  for  feed   consumed. 

F5EDING  SHORN  AND  UNSHORN  LAMBS  CONFINED  IN  A  BARN,  MICHIGAN  STATION 


Average  Ration 

Average 
Weight 
at  Be- 
ginning, 
Lbs. 

Average 
Daily 
Gain, 
Lbs. 

Average 
Total 
Gain, 
Lbs. 

Feed  for  100  Lbs. 
Gain 

Grain, 
Lbs. 

Hay, 
Lbs. 

Grain, 
Lbs. 

Hay, 
Lbs. 

Unshorn 

Shorn 

1.3 
1.4 

1.3 
1.5 

85 
84 

0.25 
0.18 

23.0 
16.1 

506 
786 

510 
830 

Fattening  Sheep  of  Different  Ages 

At  the  Montana  Station,  Shaw  compared  the  fattening  qualities 
of  average  western  range  lambs,  one  and  two-year-old  wethers,  and 
aged  ewes.  Each  lot  of  about  50  was  fed  whole  barley  and  clover 
hay  for  88  days  with  the  following  results: 

249 


FATTENING  RANGE  SHEEP  OF  DIFFERENT  AGES 


Average 

Ration 

Age  When 

Fed 

Barley, 

Clover, 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lambs 

0,7 

2.1 

One-year-old 

wethers 

0.7 

3.8 

Two  year-old 

wethers 

0.7 

4.1 

Aged  ewes 

0.7 

2.3 

Average 
Weight 
at  Be- 
ginning, 
Lbs. 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 
Lbs. 


63 

95 

IIG 
92 


0.27 

0  27 

0.28 
0.18 


Average 
Total 
Gain, 
Lbs. 


23.7 

23.5 

24.3 
15.6 


Feed  for  100  Lbs. 
Gain 


Barley, 
Lbs. 


253 

256 

248 
387 


Clover 
Hay, 
Lbs. 


763 

1413 

1469 
1320 


It  will  be  observed  that  all  lots,  except  the  aged  ewes,  made  practi- 
cally the  same  daily  and  total  gains.  The  lambs,  however,  consumed 
but  little  over  half  the  hay  eaten  by  the  others.  About  the  same 
amount  of  grain  was  required  by  all  but  the  aged  ewes.  Other  trials 
at  the  same  station  showed  that  lambs  make  more  rapid  and  economical 
gains  than  do  yearling  wethers.  Owing  to  their  tendency  to  grow, 
lambs  require  a  longer  period  to  fatten  than  do  mature  wethers,  and 
their  rations  should  contain  more  fat-producing  material. 

Exposure  vs.  Confinement 

Next  to  feed,  the  feeding  place  and  the  method  of  confinement  are 
of  importance  in  fattening  sheep.  At  the  Minnesota  Station  Shaw 
fed  four  lots,  each  of  eight  lambs  averaging  78  lbs.  for  117  days  under 
various  conditions  as  to  confinement.  Lot  1  was  kept  ou£  of  doors 
continuously  in  a  yard  sheltered  from  the  wind  by  a  low  building 
at  one  side.  Lot  2  was  confined  in  a  yard  with  an  open  shed  for 
shelter.  Lot  3  was  kept  in  a  compartment  of  the  barn  having  one 
large  window  facing  the  east  for  ventilation.  All  lots  were  fed  the 
same  ration  with  the  following  results: 

EFFECT  OF  VARIOUS  METHODS  OF  CONFINEMENT  ON  FATTENING  LAMBS 


Where  Fed 


Lot  1— 

Out  of  doors 

Lot  2— 

In  yard  with  shed. 
Lot  3— 

In  stable 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 
Lbs. 


0.28 
0.32 
0.28 


Feed  for  100  Lbs.  Gain 


Wheat 
Screen- 
ings, 
Lbs. 


804 
668 
722 


Oil 
Meal, 
Lbs. 


Hay, 
Lbs. 


90 

74 
80 


316 
251 

28? 


It  will  be  seen  that  lot  2,  kept  in  a  yard  with  an  open  shed,  made 
the  largest  and  the  most  economical  gain,  while  lot  1,  kept  out  of 
doors,  made  as  good  gains  as  those  confined  in  the  barn,  but  required 
slightly  more  feed  for  100  lbs.  of  gain. 


Salt 


In  a  feeding  experiment  in  France  in  which  three  lots  of  sheep  were 
fed  the  same  rations  of  hay,  straw,  potatoes  and  beans,  those  receiving 
0.5  ounces  of  salt  per  head  daily  gained  4.5  lbs.  per  head  more  than 
those  fed  no  salt,  and  1.25  lbs.  more  than  those  fed  0.75  ounces  of  salt 
per  head  daily.  This  indicates  that  sheep  can  be  given  too  much 
as  well  as  too  little  salt.  The  fleeces  of  the  salt-fed  sheep  were  better 
and  heavier  than  those  fed  no  salt. 

Corn  Silage  vs.  Roots 

At  the  Michigan  Station  Mumford  compared  corn  silage  with  roots 
for  fattening  lambs.  In  the  first  trial,  lasting  84  days,  sugar  beets 
and  corn  silage  were  fed,  and  in  the  second,  lasting  119  days,  rutabagas 
and  corn  silage.  The  concentrates  consisted  of  two  parts  of  oats 
and  one  part  of  bran  in  the  first  trial,  and  equal  parts  of  oats  and  bran 
in  the  second. 

CORN  SILAGE  COMPARED  WITH  ROOTS 


Average  Ration 


First  Trial 
Lot  1— 

Sugar  beets,  4.7  lbs 

Hay,  1.0  lbs 

Grain,  1.0  lbs 

Lot  2— 

Silage,  4. .5  lbs 

Hay,  0.8  lbs 

Grain,  1.0  lbs _._ 

Second  Trial 
Lot  1  — 

Rutabagas,  5.6  lbs 

Hay,  1.6  lbs 

Grain,  1.0  lbs 

Lot  2— 

Silage,  3.4  lbs 

Hay,  0.8  lbs 

Grain,  1.0  lbs : 


Average         Feed  for  100  Lbs.  Gain 
Daily 


Gain,        (^     ■ 
T.Kc  Gram, 

Lbs. 


Lbs. 


0.43     i       233 


0.36  282 


0.25 


0.25 


398 


400 


TT  ,,      I  Roots  or 
Lbs'        Silage. 
^^^-     I      Lbs. 


233  1,101 


225  1,266 


413 


337 


2,277 


1,383 


In  the  first  trial  sugar  beets  gave  somewhat  better  results  than  corn 
silage,  while  in  the  second  rutabagas  did  not  quite  equal  corn  silage. 

Alfalfa  Hay  vs.  Prairie  Hay 

At  the  Nebraska  Station  Burnett  fed  52-lb.  lambs  alfalfa  hay  in 
opposition  to  prairie  hay,  giving  them  in  addition  all  the  shelled  corn 
they  could  eat.  The  results  of  the  trial  which  lasted  98  days  are  as 
follows: 

861 


ALFALFA  HAY  COMPARED  WITH  PRAIRIE  HAY  FOR  FATTENING  LAMBS 


Average  Ration 


Average 
Daily 
Gain, 
Lbs. 


Average 
Total 
Gain, 
Lbs. 


Feed  for  100  Lbs 
Gain 


Corn, 
Lbs. 


Hay, 
Lbs. 


Lot  1— 

Alfalfa  hay,  1.4  lbs.. 

Shelled  corn,  1.0  lbs. 
Lot  2— 

Prairie  hay,  0.9  lbs.  _ 

Shelled  corn,  0.9  lbs. 


0.33 
0.20 


31.9 
19.8 


306 
429 


411 
424 


As  shown  above,  the  lambs  in  lot  1,  fed  alfalfa  hay,  ate  less  hay  and 
grain,  made  heavier  gains,  and  yet  consumed  123  lbs.  less  corn  for  each 
100  lbs.  of  gain.  They  were  more  thrifty,  had  better  appetites,  and 
so  were  able  to  convert  more  feed  into  mutton. 


HORSES 

Feeds  for  Horses 

Oats.  While  several  varieties  of  grains  are  used  for  horse  feeds, 
nothing  seems  to  take  the  place  of  oats.  Oats  are  not  only  palatable, 
but  the  nutrients  they  contain  are  in  such  proportion  that  they  form 
almost  a  perfect  balanced  ration.  Often  it  is  advisable,  if  a  horse's 
teeth  are  poor,  or  they  are  over-worked,  to  grind  the  oats.  New  and 
musty  oats  should  never  be  given.  The  quantitj^  to  give  a  work  horse  is 
about  one  pound  or  quart  of  oats  to  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  weight. 
If  the  horse  is  working  hard,  it  should  receive  a  little  more,  and  if  idle,  a 
little  less. 

Corn.  Next  to  oats,  corn  is  the  most  desirable  grain  for  the  horse. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  mix  the  two  feeds  and  not  change  abruptly  from  one 
to  the  other.  New  corn  is  apt  to  produce  indigestion  and  oftentimes 
colic.  It  is  much  safer  to  feed  ear  corn  than  shelled  corn,  for  the  reason 
that  the  corn  on  the  cob  is  better  preserved  and  the  horse  is  more 
apt  to  thoroughly  masticate  the  grains.  Corn  being  a  carbohydrate, 
tends  to  add  fat,  especially  if  the  animal  is  idle. 

Barley  is  also  a  splendid  feed  for  horses,  but  it  requires  more  of  this 
grain  than  oats  to  give  the  same  results.  Ground  barley  gives  better 
results  than  whole  grains. 

Wheat.  Wheat  either  alone  or  mixed  with  barley,  oats  or  corn,  gives 
good  results.     It  is  not  advisable  to  feed  too  much  wheat  alone. 

Rye.  If  rye  is  given,  it  should  be  mixed  in  proportion  of  one  part  of 
rjT^e  to  four  parts  of  oats. 


Kaffir  Corn  and  Milo  Maize  are  also  good,  but  owing  to  the  small  size 
and  hardness  of  the  grains,  they  should  be  ground. 

Cow  Peas  are  fed  very  generally  in  the  South,  and  when  mixed  with 
corn  or  other  grains,  have  been  found  very  satisfactory. 

Dried  Brewers'  Grains  have  been  found  very  satisfactory  when  fed 
with  hay,  wheat  bran,  shelled  corn  or  oats. 

Cotto7i-Seed  Meal,  when  mixed  with  other  feeds,  is  very  satisfactory. 
Usually  about  one  to  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  the  cotton-seed  meal  is 
fed  daily. 

Millet  Haij,  if  fed  in  large  quantities,  is  apt  to  affect  the  horse's  kid- 
neys. 

Thickly-Grown  Corii  Fodder  and  Corn  Stover,  when  properly  cured,  are 
among  the  best  of  roughages  for  the  horse. 

Clover  and  Alfalfa  Haij,  when  not  musty  and  dusty,  are  splendid  feeds 
for  colts  on  account  of  the  protein  they  contain. 

The  Amount  of  Grain  to  Give  a  colt  or  horse  depends  upon  the  age. 
For  instance,  after  weaning  until  the  colt  is  one  year  of  age,  a  fair  allow- 
ance is  from  two  to  three  pounds.  When  one  to  two  years  of  age,  four 
to  five  pounds,  and  when  two  to  three  years  of  age,  it  should  have  from 
seven  to  eight  pounds.  Henry  Woodruff  recommends  that  a  colt  at 
weaning  time  be  given  an  unlimited  allowance  of  hay  and  two  pounds  of 
oats.  When  one  year  old,  it  should  have  four  pounds  of  oats  and  hay, 
and  when  two  years  old,  it  should  have  six  pounds  of  oats,  or,  if  the  colt 
is  in  training,  increase  to  eight  pounds.  For  a  colt  in  training,  when 
three  years  old,  he  recommends  from  eight  to  twelve  pounds  of  oats,  and 
hay  unlimited  allowance.  Splan  recommends  for  trotting  horses  a  fair 
amount  of  hay  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of  oats. 

Stutgart  recommends  for  farm  horses  doing  medium  work,  ten  pounds 
of  oats,  ten  pounds  of  hay  and  three  pounds  of  straw.  Farm  or  dray 
horses  doing  heavy  work  should  have  from  four  to  seven  pounds  of  corn, 
five  or  six  pounds  of  oats,  one-half  pound  of  bran,  three  or  four  pounds 
of  corn  meal  and  twelve  or  fifteen  pounds  of  hay.  Army  horses  that  are 
called  upon  to  do  hard  and  continued  work,  do  best  when  given  oats,  hay 
and  straw. 


POULTRY 


IS  poultry  raising  worth  while?  Unhesitatingly  we  say,  "Yes."  The 
poultry  production  amounts  annually  in  the  United  States  to  more 
than  $750,000,000,  a  greater  sum  than  the  value  of  our  entire  wheat 
crop.  Success,  however,  will  not  result  if  haphazard  methods  are  pur- 
sued. 

Good  judgment  and  a  knowledge  of  the  requirements  of  poultry  are 
necessary  to  successfully  raise  and  make  them  profitable.  Mixed  breeds, 

253 


Flock  of  Columbian  Wyandottes  . .  Fine  for  Both  Eggs  and  Meat 

unscientific  feeding  and  poor  care  always  result  unprofitably.  In  this 
short  treatise  we  will  deal  only  with  chickens,  as  they  are  generally  of 
greater  importance  to  the  farmers  than  ducks,  geese,  turkeys,  etc., 
although  the  same  rules  governing  breeding  and  feeding  are  applicable 
to  all  fowls. 

First.  The  poultry  raiser  should  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  the 
mechanism  of  the  fowl. 

Second,     He  should  understand  the  value  of  the  different  breeds. 

Third.  He  should  know  the  kind  of  food  required  to  produce  meat 
and  the  kind  necessary  to  produce  eggs. 

Fourth.  '  He  must  know  how  to  care  for  the  birds  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  if  they  are  to  yield  a  profitable  return. 

In  raising  chickens,  it  must  be  remembered  that  experience  is  a  wise 
teacher,  and  the  writer  suggests  that  a  small  beginning  coupled  with  a 
fair  amount  of  knowledge  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  common  sense 
developed  from  progressive  experiments  and  trials  is  more  apt  to  result 
in  a  profitable  business  than  an  elaborate  beginning  without  first  having 
encountered  many  of  the  stumbling  blocks  met  with  by  the  novice  and 
not  uncommon  to  the  experienced  fancier. 


Breeds 

The  first  thing  to  consider  is  breeds.  They  may  be  classified  as  Egg 
Producers,  Meat  Breeds,  General-Purpose  Breeds  and  Fancy  Fowls. 

Egg-Producing  Breeds  are  usually  small  in  size,  poor  sitters  and  not 
very  considerate  of  their  chicks.  The  best  varieties  are.  Leghorns, 
Minorcas  and  Black  Spanish.  These  breeds  mature  very  young,  it  not 
being  uncommon  for  them  to  begin  laying  when  five  or  six  months 
old.  For  meat,  they  are  not  desirable,  as  they  fatten  slowly  and  do  not 
attain  a  great  weighit.  On  account  of  their  restless  disposition  and  unre- 

254 


liability  as  sitters,  it  is  best  to  hatch  their  eggs  in  an  incubator  or  under 
another  breed  of  hens. 

Meat  Breeds.  These  fowls  are  large  and  sluggish.  They  are  heavy 
eaters,  but  will  not  skirmish  for  food  as  other  varieties  do.  They  are 
poor  layers  and  persistent  sitters.  The  best  varieties  of  this  breed  are 
Brahmas,  Cochins  and  Langshans.  Some  of  these  varieties  when  com- 
pelled to  forage  and  have  the  proper  diet,  are  said  to  be  good  layers. 

General- Purpose  Breeds.  These  breeds  are  recommended  as  the  most 
desirable  from  every  standpoint  for  the  average  farmer.  They  are  of 
good  size  and  active  rustlers.  They  mature  early,  are  good  layers, 
good  sitters  and  splendid  mothers.  If  forced  early  and  given  the  right 
diet,  they  make  early  broilers.  A  few  of  the  best  breeds  are  Plymouth 
Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  Javas  and  Orpingtons. 

Plymouth  Rocks.  Of  all  the  varieties  of  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  the 
Barred  variety  is  a  great  favorite  with  the  farmer.  They  seem  to  pos- 
sess all  of  the  requirements  of  a  delightful  barnyard  fowl.  The  other 
varieties — Buff  and  White — are  also  splendid  chickens  to  raise  both 
for  eggs  and  meat. 

Wyandottes.  While  Wyandottes  are  not,  as  a  rule,  quite  as  large  as 
the  Plymouth  Rocks,  they  make  excellent  broilers  and  roasters,  their 
meat  being  exceptionally  sweet,  juicy  and  tender.  They  are  also 
splendid  layers  and  are  good  to  their  young. 

Rhode  Island  Reds.  The  Rhode  Island  Red  is  a  splendid  general- 
purpose  chicken.     It  is  of  medium  size,  matures  early  and  is  very 

hearty.  There  are  two  varieties  of 
this  breed,  namely  the  Single  Comb 
and  the  Rose  Comb. 

Javas.  The  Java  is  a  splendid 
general-purpose  fowl.  In  size  it  is 
about  the  same  as  the  Plymouth 
Rock.  Both  varieties.  Black  and 
Mottled,  are  beautiful  birds  and 
possess  the  splendid  qualities  of  the 
ether  breeds  mentioned. 

Orpingtons  are  fast  gaining  favor 
as  general-purpose  fowls.  They  are 
of  good  size,  splendid  layers  and 
very  easy  to  keep  in  prime  condition. 
Of  the  -ten  distinct  varieties  of 
Orpingtons,  only  three  or  four  are 
bred  extensively  in  the  United 
States. 

255 


Typical  Brown  Leg-horn  Hen  . .  Leghorns 
Are  Excellent  Layers 


Light  Brahmas  . .  Typical  Meat  Fowls 

Ornamental  Breeds  are  not,  from  an  economical  standpoint,  desirable 
fowls  for  the  farmer  to  raise.  Bantams,  Sultanas,  Crested  Polish,  Ham- 
burgs,  Houdans  and  Exhibition  Games  are  a  few  of  the  breeds  of  orna- 
mental fowls.  While  these  breeds  delight  the  eye,  they  are  not  regarded 
as  popular  from  a  producing  standpoint. 

In  selecting  chickens,  it  is  never  advisable  to  mix  breeds,  nor  is  it  best 
to  mix  varieties  of  the  same  breed.  In-bred  fowls  are  very  inferior  to 
pure-bred  ones,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  large  per  cent  of  the  disap- 
pointments in  the  production  of  eggs  and  chickens  is  due  to  in-breeding. 
In-bred  chickens  are  under-sized,  poor  layers,  and,  if  the  in-breeding 
continues  for  a  number  of  years,  as  is  the  case  on  most  farms,  the  chick- 
ens are  hardly  worth  their  feed.  The  writer  advises  the  selection  of  one 
or  two  breeds,  preferably  two,  and  that  they  be  kept  entirely  separate 
during  the  breeding  season.  If  one  breed  is  egg-producing  and  the 
other  a  general-purpose  fowl,  the  eggs  of  the  former  can  be  hatched 
under  general-purpose  hens  and  the  young  chickens  are  certain  to  be 
well  cared  for. 

Feeding 

The  importance  of  feeding  is  a  problem  that  requires  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  the  fowl's  requirements,  whether  the  aim  is  to  produce  meat  or 
eggs,  and  coupled  with  that,  common  sense  is  indispensable.  Fowls 
require  a  food  composed  of  three  constituents  or  substances,  namely, 
mineral  matter,  nitrogenous  matter  and  carbonaceous  matter,  and  they 
must  be  proportioned  so  that  the  most  economical  results  will  be 
obtained.  By  carefully  studying  the  habits  of  the  chicken,  the  farmer 
will  be  able  to  know  its  requirements  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Every 
one  knows  that  the  hen  does  the  best  laying  in  the  spring  and  early 
summer.     This  is  because  she  instinctively  selects  the  proper  diet. 

256 


From  the  soil  she  secures  mineral  matter,  especially  lime,  necessary  to 
produce  shells.  She  picks  up  small  pieces  of  rock  which  are  an  aid  to 
digestion.  She  secures  seed  that  produces  the  heat  and  energy,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  carbonaceous  materials.  She  picks  green  vegetation, 
which  is  rich  in  protein,  and  she  also  secures  insects  which  supply  the 
meat  element  necessary  to  maintain  health  and  strong-producing  qualities. 
Inasmuch  as  eggs  command  the  highest  price  during  the  winter 
months,  the  hens  can  be  made  very  profitable  if  they  are  furnished  prac- 
tically the  same  diet  that  they  secure  when  foraging  in  the  spring. 
Green  vegetation  can  be  secured  by  growing  oats,  barley  or  rye  in  boxes 
in  the  furnace  room,  or  by  saving  cabbages,  turnips,  rutabagas  or  any 
roots  of  the  same  nature,  and  giving  them  a  small  quantity  each  day. 
Meat  can  be  supplied  by  furnishing  bones  from  the  meat  shop  or  meat 
scraps  which  are  usually  to  be  secured  at  a  small  cost.  Ground  bones 
are  very  beneficial  given  in  small  quantities  and  ground  oyster  shells  are 
indispensable.  A  few  bushels  of  sand  or  fine  gravel  should  be  put  in 
some  convenient  place  for  the  chickens  during  the  winter  months. 

Feeding  Chicks 

The  first  week  of  the  chick's  life  is  a  critical  period.  It  should  be 
given  nothing  to  eat  the  first  day  for  the  reason  that  nature  provides 
a  store  of  nutrients  within  the  chick  which  is  intended  for  its  use  dur- 
ing the  first  20  or  24  hours  after  it  is  hatched. 

Probably  the  best  diet  for  the  young  chick  during  the  first  few  days 
is  infertile  eggs  boiled  hard,  ground  or  finely  chopped,  shells  included. 


White  Plymouth  Rocks  ..  Excellent  Meat  and  Egg  Producers 

257 


and  mixed  with  rolled  oats.  After  the  fourth  or  fifth  day  it  can  be 
given  in  addition,  stale  bread  crumbs,  cracked  wheat,  oatmeal  (gran- 
ulated), broken  rice  and  a  small  quantity  of  millet  seed.  Cornmeal 
should  not  be  given  during  the  first  week,  but  after  that  time  corn-meal 
bread  or  corn  meal,  rolled  oats,  wheat  bran,  cracked  wheat  and  screen- 
ings can  be  given  in  combination. 

Charcoal  and  sand  should  be  kept  on  the  floor  from  the  beginning. 
Skim  milk  or  even  sweet  milk  is  desirable  for  a  drink.  Fresh  water  is 
absolutely  essential,  and  should  be  supplied  often.  The  chick  should 
be  fed  often,  but  not  too  much  at  one  time.  As  a  general  rule  there  is 
more  danger  in  over-feeding  than  in  not  feeding  enough  during  the  first 
two  weeks.  Meat  scraps  should  be  supplied  unless  insects  are  plentiful. 
Young  chicks  should  be  permitted  to  run  where  green  grasses  or  clover 
can  be  had.  If  grasses  cannot  be  secured,  they  should  be  given  lettuce, 
onion  tops  or  green  roots.  Little  chicks  should  not  be  exposed  to  a 
broiling  sun,  neither  should  they  be  chilled  or  become  wet  during  their 
early   life. 

To  Fatten  Chickens 

To  fatten  rapidly,  chickens  should  be  confined,  perferably  in  a  crate, 
for  three  or  four  weeks  before  they  are  to  be  sent  to  the  market.  Carbo- 
hydrates are  necessary  to  produce  fat,  hence,  corn  should  constitute  the 
main  part  of  the  diet.     A  good  ration  is. 

Finely-ground  corn  meal 2  parts. 

Middlings 1  part. 

Meat  scraps 1  part. 

Buckwheat  and  hulled  oats  are  also  good  to  mix  with  the  corn. 

Food  not  eaten  promptly  should  be  removed  from  the  pen.  Plenty 
of  fresh  water  should  be  supplied,  and  if  possible,  milk  given.  Green 
feed  should  be  given  three  or  four  times  weekly  and  grits  furnished 
occasionally. 

Feed  for  Laying  Hens 

Hens  do  not  lay  well  if  too  fat,  hence,  corn  should  not  be  the  major 
portion  of  their  diet.  Exercise  being  important,  whole  or  cracked  grain 
should  be  sprinkled  on  a  thick  layer  of  litter,  compelling  the  hens  to 
scratch  in  order  to  secure  the  feed. 

A  dry  mash  of  wheat  bran  two  parts,  and  one  part  each  of  corn-meal 
middlings,  brewers  grains,  linseed  meal  and  beef  scraps,  make  an  excel- 
lent diet,  and  an  abundance  should  be  kept  in  a  feeding  trough  at  all 
times.     Another  splendid  diet  for  laying  hens  is. 

Millet  seed 1  part. 

Wheat  bran 4  parts. 

Meat  or  meat  meal 4  parts. 

Wheat,  cracked  or  whole 3  parts. 

Corn  meal 4  parts. 

Corn,  whole  or  cracked 2  parts. 

258 


White  Crested  Black  Polish  Cockerel  ..  An  Ornamental  Fowl 


Sharp  sand  and  ground  oyster  shells  should  be  given  and  cabbage 
and  roots  added  if  grasses  are  not  accessible. 

Hens  should  be  given  fresh  water  at  least  twice  each  day.  A  dust 
heap  is  splendid  to  keep  the  skin  healthy  and  free  from  vermin.  It  is 
also  very  advantageous,  especially  during  the  winter,  to  occasionally 
dust  the  hens  with  insect  powder.  Pullets  thrive  better  and  begin  lay- 
ing earlier  if  separated  from  the  cockerels. 

If  the  farmer  will  fill  a  few  barrels  with  turnips  or  rutabagas  in  the 
fall  and  place  them  in  the  cellar  where  it  is  warm  enough  to  cause  them 
to  grow,  they  take  the  place  of  grasses  and  clover.  If  the  winter  diet 
conforms  closely  to  the  spring  food  and  the  hen  is  compelled  to  scratch, 
it  will  be  found  that  she  will  lay  as  free  during  the  winter  as  she  does 
in  the  early  spring.  Ground  fresh  bones  are  of  material  assistance  to 
the  laying  hens  during  the  winter  time. 

The  writer  is  inclined  to  think,  from  experience,  that  dry  mashes  are 
preferable  to  wet  ones,  and  that  raw  grains  give  better  results  than 
cooked.    I  realize,  however,  that  opinions  differ  widely  on  this  question. 

The  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  has  made  some  exhaustive 
experiments  in  feeding  and  managing  poultry,  and  without  going  into 
details  we  take  the  liberty  to  give  their  conclusion  which  conforms  very 
closely  to  results  obtained  by  many  experiment  stations  and  prominent 
raisers  of  poultry. 

259 


Conclusions 

1.  Large  breeds  in  general  eat  more  than  small  ones  during  the  grow- 
ing period. 

2.  Early  hatched  chickens  grow  faster  than  late  hatched  ones. 
April  first  seems  to  be  a  desirable  time  for  hatching  in  the  northern 
and    middle    states. 

3.  The  amount  of  feed  required  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  in- 
creases as  the  chicks  approach  maturity. 

4.  Between  the  ages  of  6  and  13  weeks,  they  require  from  4  to  4| 
pounds  of  feed  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain.  Between  the  age  of  13 
and  26  weeks  they  require  4f  to  5|  pounds  of  feed  to  produce  a  pound 
of   gain. 

5.  Chicks  forced  when  young  do  not  make  so  rapid  a  growth  as  they 
approach  maturity  as  those  fed  moderate  rations. 

6.  Chicks  weighing  less  than  one  pound  seem  to  grow  faster  on  a 
wet  mash;  those  weighing  a  pound  and  a  half  or  more  do  best  on  dry 
feed. 

7.  The  loss  among  chicks  on  wet  mash  is  greater  than  among  those 
on  dry  feed,  even  when  weighing  less  than  one  pound  each. 

8.  Eggs  set  about  April  first  seem  to  produce  the  highest  per  cent  of 
chicks. 

Early  pullets  should  begin  to  lay  not  later  than  November  first 
and  continue  through  the  winter. 

If  yearling  hens  lay  well  during  the  summer,  they  are  not  apt  to  do 
so  well  in  the  winter. 

Hens  are  not  regarded  profitable  after  they  are  2|  years  of  age. 

The  Hen  House 

The  hen  house,  whether  it  is  a  continuous  house  or  a  colony,  should 
be  built  on  high,  dry  ground  if  possible.  A  sandy  loam  is  more  prefer- 
able than  a  heavy  clay,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  apt  to  remain  cold 
and  damp.  The  house  should  if  possible  front  the  south  in  order  to  be 
warm  during  the  winter  time,  and  it  should  be  so  constructed  that  the 
rays  of  the  sun  will  at  some  time  during  the  day  strike  all  parts  of  the 
interior.     The  chicken  house  should  be  well  ventilated. 

If  the  ground  is  dry,  a  dirt  floor  is  sufficient.  A  cement  floor  is  more 
preferable  than  any  other  kind  for  the  reason  that  it  can  at  all  times  be 
kept  clean  and  free  from  vermin.     Board  floors  are  not  desirable. 

The  foundation  should  be  made  of  concrete  and  deep,  in  order  to 
keep  out  rats. 

The  inside  of  the  house  should  be  made  of  well-matched  boards  or 
plastered  in  order  that  it  can  be  kept  free  from  vermin. 

The  nests  should  be  detachable  so  that  they  can  be  taken  out  occa- 
sionally and  sunned  and  cleaned.     Each  chicken  should  be  given  three 


or  four  feet  of  floor  space.     Not  more  than  fifty  chickens  should  be 
kept  in  a  colony.     If  the  house  is  continuous,  the  outside  pens  should  be 
constructed  so  that  the  chickens  can  be  rotated  and  the  gi'asses  or  vege- 
tation on  one  or  more  of  the  plots  given  an  opportunity  to  grow. 
Rye,  rape,  alfalfa  and  clover  make  the  best  summer  pasture. 

Diseases 

So  many  specific  remedies  are  given  for  diseases  and  so  many  failures 
reported  that  the  writer  will  not  attempt  to  deal  with  them  except  to 
say  that  diseases  can  to  a  great  extent  be  prevented  by  cleanliness,  the 
right  kind  of  diet  and  pure  water. 

Vermin  kill  young  chicks  and  destroy  the  usefulness  of  the  hens. 
This  condition  can  be  obviated  by  keeping  the  house  and  nests  sprayed 
and  occasionally  painted.  Do  not  neglect  to  keep  a  bath  of  dust  where 
the  chickens  can  get  to  it.  Ducks  and  geese  bathe  in  water,  but  chick- 
ens and  turkeys  bathe  in  dust.  Do  not  use  lard  to  kill  lice  on  the  heads 
and  under  the  wings  of  young  chickens,  but  use  olive  oil. 

Do  not  feed  young  chicks  too  much  corn  meal.  During  the  first 
week  they  should  have  none. 

Do  not  permit  young  chicks  to  become  chilled. 

Furnish  shade  for  young  chicks  during  the  heat  of  the  day. 

Do  not  store  eggs  intended  for  hatching  in  a  cold,  damp  place,  or 
where  it  is  too  hot. 

Never  permit  a  hen  to  sit  on  an  old  nest. 


THE  FARM  GARDEN 


EVERY  farmer  should  allot  a  desirable  plot  of  ground  for  a  garden. 
Nothing  on  the  farm  will  give  the  farmer,  his  family  and  his  city 
friends  more  satisfaction  than  a  garden  well  stocked  with  a  large  variety 
of  vegetables  and  berries. 

We  will  not  attempt  to  go  into  the  matter  of  conducting  a  garden, 
believing  that  the  information  given  in  most  seed  catalogs  is  a  sufficient 
guide  to  the  farmer.  We  will,  however,  mention  a  few  of  the  essential 
things  necessary  to  make  a  garden  productive. 

The  garden,  for  convenience,  should  be  located  near  the  house.  If 
conditions  will  permit,  a  plot  should  be  selected  which  has  a  gentle  slope 
to  the  south.  A  garden  needs  the  sun  early  and  late;  hence,  the  loca- 
tion should  not  be  where  it  will  be  shaded.  A  windbreak,  however, 
either  of  trees,  hedge  or  a  tight  fence,  is  desirable  as  a  protection  on  the 
north  line. 

An  ideal  garden  soil  is  a  rich,  sandy  loam,  but  we  fully  realize  that 
such  a  soil  is  not  always  available.     If  the  soil  is  not  of  the  right  charac- 

261 


ter  and  is  not  fertile,  make  it  so.  If  the  soil  is  inclined  to  be  tight  and 
soggy,  it  should  be  drained  by  placing  drain  tile. 

Drain  tile  are  very  essential.  They  serve  three  purposes,  namely,  to 
remove  superfluous  water,  admit  air  to  the  soil  and  increase  the  tem- 
perature of  the  soil  early  in  the  spring. 

The  gardener  should  use  every  device  and  means  to  make  his  garden 
soil  warm.  Thorough  tillage  assists,  and  the  application  of  well-rotted 
barnyard  manure  is  of  great  value  in  making  the  ground  warm  and,  in 
absorbing  water,  and  drain  tile  will  make  it  several  degrees  warmer  than 
undrained  ground. 

The  ground  should  be  plowed  and  tilled  deep  and  a  subsoil  plow  used. 
The  object  in  plowing  deep  and  using  the  subsoil  plow  is  to  make  a  deep 
seed-bed  and  destroy  a  hard-pan  or  a  compact  plow  sole.  A  deep  seed- 
bed gives  room  for  the  plant  roots,  furnishes  more  plant  food  and  acts 
as  a  surface  reservoir  to  absorb  a  heavy  rain  and  hold  it  until  it  perco- 
lates into  the  deeper  subsoils.  It  is  practically  useless  to  attempt  to 
have  a  profitable  garden  if  a  hard-pan  exists  or  the  upper  subsoil  layer 
is  very  compact. 

If  the  soil  is  not  of  the  right  character,  it  can  be  improved  by  adding 
such  soils  and  substances  as  may  be  necessary.  For  instance,  if  the 
ground  is  clay,  well-rotted  manure,  peat,  muck  and  leaf  mould  will 
improve  it.  The  muck  and  leaf  mould  will  prevent  baking  and  pud- 
dling. If  it  is  sandy,  add  loam,  muck  and  manure.  If  the  soil  is  appar- 
ently too  rich  in  organic  matter,  a  condition  which  tends  to  stimulate  an 
abnormal  growth  of  tops,  then  add  clay  or  sand.  Garden  soil  should 
contain  an  abundance  of  lime. 

If  the  soil  is  deficient  in  plant  food,  and  it  is  not  convenient  to  obtain 
sufficient  quantities  of  well-rotted  manure,  it  is  advisable  to  add  com- 
mercial fertilizers,  either  in  the  form  of  a  complete  commercial  fertilizer 
or  some  of  the  amendments.  The  farmer  should  remember,  however, 
that  commercial  fertilizers  are  of  little  use  unless  the  soil  contains  an 
abundance  of  humus.  A  desirable  commercial  fertilizer  should  contain 
about  seven  per  cent  of  ammonia,  ten  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
eight  or  ten  per  cent  of  potash.  Wood  ashes  make  a  splendid  fertilizer, 
besides  improving  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  Poultry  manure 
excels  all  other  manures  for  the  garden. 

Rotation  or  changing  location  of  the  various  products  each  year  is 
important.  It  is  not  profitable  to  plant  the  same  vegetables  on  the 
same  plot  year  after  year. 

In  order  to  have  fresh  vegetables  from  early  spring  until  winter,  early 
medium  and  late  varieties  should  be  planted.  By  using  cold  frames, 
fresh  vegetables  can  be  grown  nearly  all  winter.  As  soon  as  a  piece  of 
ground  is  cleared  of  vegetables  in  the  fall,  it  should  be  covered  with 
well-rotted  manure.  If  it  cannot  be  obtained,  cover  with  coarse  manure 
or  straw  and  disc  in  thoroughly  before  plowing  in  the  spring. 


HOW  CAN  THE  FARM  BE  MADE 
MORE  ATTRACTIVE? 

THE  farm  is  profitable  and  attractive  just  in  proportion  to  its  equip- 
ment and  the  scientific  methods  employed  in  its  management. 
If  the  farm  is  not  equipped  with  modern  implements  that  lessen  the 
time  and  cost  of  labor  and  lighten  the  burdens,  it  is  not  profitable, 
nor  is  farming  a  desirable  occupation.  To  the  credit  of  the  farmer,  who 
appreciates  the  fact  that  farming  is  a  profession  and  has  a  realiza- 
tion of  his  responsibilities  to  future  generations,  he  is  keeping  pace 
with  inventions  and  improvements  both  in  implements  and  methods. 
He  promptly  discarded  the  grain  cradle  when  the  hand  rake  reaper 
appeared,  and  in  turn  purchased  the  self  rake,  the  Marsh  harvester 
and  finally  the  modern  self  binder,  realizing  that  to  ignore  them 
meant  falling  by  the  wayside  in  the  march  to  keep  pace  with  his  more 
progressive  neighbor.  Today,  the  up-to-date  farm  is  equipped  with 
a  sulky  plow  (many  with  a  tractor  and  gangs).  The  time  and  cost 
of  making  and  storing  hay  is  reduced  three  hundred  per  cent  through 
the  efficacy  of  the  mower,  loader,  stacker  and  baler.  The  modern 
grain  drill  is  indispensable  and  many  other  tools  and  appliances 
costing  thousands  of  dollars  are  regarded  as  indispensable.  The 
elevated  water  tank  at  the  barn,  the  gasoline  engine  to  grind  feed  and 
shell  corn  save  time  and    labor. 

But,  how  about  the  home,  the  housewife  and  the  children?  Is  the 
equipment  of  the  farm  home  in  keeping  with  the  farm?  Does  the 
housewife  enjoy  the  modern  conveniences  that  are  found  in  the  city 
home? 

Unfortuntely  too 
many  do  not.  With  her 
the  day's  work  is  never 
done.  Drudgery  con- 
fronts her  from  early 
morning  till  late  at 
night.  Pumping  and 
carrying  water,  running 
the  washing  machine, 
churn  and  cream  sepa- 
rator are  for  her  to  do  as 
well  as  many  other  bur- 
dens which  could  be 
lessened  by  using 
modern  appliances. 
When  she  visits  her  city 

friends  and    enjoys    the  .-e  &  V  Triumph-  charging  Lighting  Plant 

263 


Gasoline  Engine  Running  Cream  Separatoi 


ever-flowing  faucet,  the  kitchen  drain,  the  bath  room  and  its  aux- 
iliaries and  contrasts  the  electric  lights  with  her  oily  lamps  and  many 
other  things  that  might  be  mentioned,  the  farm  home  is  repulsive, 
and  she  longs  to  leave  what  can  be  made  the  most  delightful  abode 
on  earth,  the  old  farm. 

With  modern 
devices  at  a  very 
moderate  cost,  the 
farm  home  can  be 
made  as  conven- 
ient and  attractive 
as  the  city  palace, 
and  when  that  is 
done  the  rural 
dweller  is  delighted  to  invite  his  city  friends  to  his  country  home. 
The  gasoline  engine  has  become  a  very  economical  and  popular 
power.  With  it  water  is  pumped  from  the  well  or  cistern  and  forced  to 
the  tank  both  at  the 
barn  and  in  the 
garret  of  the  house. 
A  pressure  tank  in 
the  basement  can  be 
adopted  instead  of, 
the  reservoir  in  the 
garret  if  deemed 
advisable.  A  small 
gasoline  engine  will 
churn  the  butter, 
skim  the  milk,  wash  the  clothes  and  even  the  dishes. 

A  medium-sized  engine  will,  besides  running  the  various  devices 
mentioned,  generate  electricity  at  the  same  time  which  can  be  stored 
in  a  storage  battery  and  used  to  light  both  house  and  barn. 

A  bath  room  and 
lavatory  can  be 
installed  at  a  small 
cost.  By  installing 
a  septic  tank  the  sew- 
age and   drainage 

B  &~V  "Triumph"  Running  Washer  and  Wringer        j-om   bath   rOOm   and 

kitchen  can  be  safely  and  economically  disposed  of.  All  of  these 
conveniences  are  available  and  the  cost  is  only  a  small  per  cent  of  the 
the  cost  of  the  up-to-date  implements  used  on  the  farm. 


Churning 


Heating 

A  furnace  of  sufficient  capacity  to  heat  an  ordinary  house  and  heat 
water  for  the  kitchen,  bathroom  and  lavatory  is  no  more  expensive  to 
maintain  than  the  ordinary  hard-coal  burners.  Furnaces  are  on  the 
market  which  are  not  only  economical,  but  are  equipped  with  an 
automatic  device  which  regulates  the  heat. 

Septic  Tank 

While  the  sewage  may  in  some  instances  be  emptied  in  a  stream 
or  ravine,  it  is  a  dangerous  thing  to  do,  for  the  reason  that  the  stream 
will  be  contaminated,  and  unless  the  flow  is  great,  odors  will  arise, 
therefore  it  is  necessary  that  some  other  means  of  disposing  of  sewage 
be  provided.  Nothing  has  as  yet  been  devised  as  a  sewage  disposal 
for  the  farm  home  equal  to  the  septic  tank. 

A  septic  tank  is  a  receptacle  for  the  purification  and  disposal  of 
sewage.  This  system  of  sewage  disposal  is  especially  adapted  to 
villages  and  farm  dwellings  where  no  regular  sewage  system  exists. 
The  process  by  which  sewage  is  liquefied,  made  odorless  and  harmless, 
is  accomplished  by  a  specific  bacteria  or  micro-organism  known  as 
anaerobiosis. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  a  receiving  chamber  (b),  a  process  chamber 
(a),  an  inlet  pipe  (c),  discharge  pipes (e  and  f),  and  a  vent  pipe  (g). 
The  tanks  should  be  made  of  concrete  and  practically  air-tight,  having 
a  man-hole  in  the  top.  The  walls  and  top  should  be  from  four  to 
to  five  inches  in  thickness,  and  the  top  reinforced.  The  tank  can  be 
located  at  any  reasonable  distance  from  the  dwelling  house.  It  will 
be  necessary  to  locate  it  so  that  there  will  be  a  slight  fall  between  the 
house  and  the  tank.  The  pipe  (c)  leading  from  the  house  to  the  tank 
should  be  of  iron  in  order  to  prevent  the  possiblity  of  leaks.  Sewer 
pipe  can  be  used  if  the  joints  are  properly  cemented.  This  pipe  should 
also  have  a  trap  at  the  point  where  it  leaves  the  house.  The  receiving 
chamber  should  be  of  concrete,  made  air  tight  and  provided  with  a 
man-hole  in  order  that  sludge  can  be  pumped  out  in  case  of  accumula- 
tion. 

The  sewage  passes  from  the  receiving  chamber  (b)  to  the  main  tank 
(a)  through  pipe  (d).  The  object  in  having  pipe  (d)  curved  down- 
wards and  extend  to  within  one  foot  on  the  bottom  of  the  main  tank 
is  to  prevent  any  disturbance  of  the  scum  which  forms  on  top  of  the 
sewage  in  tank  (a).  That  scum  or  crust  must  not  be  broken,  for 
the  reason  that  if  it  is,  bacterial  action  and  liquefaction  stop 
until  the  crust  again  forms.  The  effluent  or  liquefied  sewage  leaves 
the  tank  through  siphon  pipe  (e).  This  pipe  starts,  as  is  shown  in 
the  illustration,  about  one  foot  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank  and  dis- 
charges into  the  tile  drain  which  carries   the  harmless  liquid  away. 

265 


> 


■  o 


i"^ 


\:iM^ 


M  ITnT  — ^^^^^= — 


3LX 


is'' 


2S6 


I 


The  outlet  pipe  must  be  provided  with  a  vent  (g)  to  prevent  the  tank 
from  being  emptied  by  the  siphon  (e  and  f). 

The  drain  should  be  ordinary  soft  porous  drain  tile  laid  end  to  end 
with  loose  open  joints.  The  ditch  in  which  the  tile  are  laid  should  be 
about  four  feet  deep.  Before  the  tile  are  laid,  one  foot  of  loose  gravel 
should  be  placed  in  the  ditch  and  one  foot  of  loose  gravel  on  top  of  the 
tile,  and  the  ditch  then  filled  with  dirt.  If  this  line  of  tile  is  four  or  five 
rods  long,  it  will  never  become  clogged  unless  the  soil  is  a  very  compact 
clay.  If  the  soil  is  of  such  a  nature,  two  lines  should  be  laid  from  the 
"V"-shaped  junction,  having,  as  shown  at  H,  gate  valves  so  that  the 
flow  can  be  alternated  every  two  weeks,  giving  each  line  time  to  dry  out. 

Size 

For  a  family  of  ten  or  twelve  people,  a  tank  six  feet  long,  four  feet 
wide  and  four  feet  deep,  holding  718  gallons,  will  be  large  enough.  Such 
a  tank  should  take  care  of  a  sink,  laundry,  bath  and  toilet  room,  and  the 
overflow  from  a  cistern.  The  receiving  chamber  should  be  about  four 
feet  by  two  or  three  feet,  and  as  deep  as  the  main  tank.  After  the  tank 
has  been  in  operation  a  year  or  two,  if  any  great  amount  of  sludge  has 
accumulated  on  the  bottom,  it  should  be  pumped  out.  If  the  tank  is 
properly  constructed,  the  accumulation  is  very  little,  even  after  it  has 
been  in  operation  several  years. 

Caution 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  empty  into  the  intake  pipe  potato  peelings 
and  other  coarse  substances  that  will  not  pass  through  a  trap  freely. 

Chloride  of  lime  interferes  with  the  bacterial  action ;  hence,  it  should 
not  be  used  to  any  great  extent  in  the  sink. 

Bacteria  do  not  materially  change  grease.  If  it  enters  the  tank  sys- 
tem in  great  quantities,  it  eventually  clogs  it.  It  is  often  necessary  to 
have  a  grease  trap  below  the  sink. 

To  prevent  gases  from  escaping,  the  manhole  covers  should  be  made 
tight  by  using  cement  or  asphalt. 

A  system  of  this  kind  will  not  freeze  in  winter,  as  the  gases  arising 
from  the  sewage  in  the  tank  generate  enough  heat  to  counteract  cold  and 
prevent  freezing. 

The  secret,  if  secret  it  may  be  called,  of  the  whole  system  is  the  dark 
air-tight  tank,  the  submerged  inlet  and  submerged  outlet.  The  bac- 
teria will  do  their  work  if  not  disturbed,  but  if  the  scum  is  molested,  the 
bacterial  action  does  not  take  place. 


GOOD  ROADS 

GOOD  roads  are  not  a  fad,  they  are  a  necessity.  They  are  to  the 
farmer  what  railroads  are  to  the  commercial  world,  and  the  paved 
streets  and  electric  roads  are  to  the  busy,  hustling  throngs  in  the  city. 

The  farmer  is  a  busy  man.  He  is  beginning  to  appreciate  that  his 
occupation  is  a  business  and  that  time  and  labor  represent  money.  He 
appreciates  the  fact  that  the  time  is  past  when  he  can  afford  to  hire 
labor  or  spend  his  own  time  at  the  prevailing  prices  to  haul  products  of 
his  farm  to  market  over  poor  roads.  He  recognizes  the  fact  that  his 
farm  is  his  business  house  and  demands  his  attention,  if  it  is  to  prosper, 
and  that  he  cannot  spend  hours  going  over  roads  with  a  plodding  horse 
when,  with  an  automobile  or  a  tractor  on  good  roads,  he  can  make  the 
same  trip  in  one-tenth  of  the  time.  Gasoline  and  oil  are  rapidly  dis- 
placing horses,  both  on  the  farm  and  roads,  and  the  sooner  the  farmer 
realizes  the  economical  benefits  of  rapid  transportation,  the  sooner  will 
he  be  abreast  with  the  improvements  which  characterize  other  lines  of 
business. 

While  the  conveniences  of  good  roads  are  of  great  importance,  the 
financial  benefits  are  surprising.  To  be  sure,  it  costs  money  to  build  a 
permanently  good  road,  but  the  farmer,  the  city  dweller  and  the  tax- 
payers in  general  cannot  make  an  investment  which  will  give  better 
returns. 

In  the  United  States  we  have  about  2,250,000  miles  of  roads,  and  not 
more  than  eight  per  cent  have  been  permanently  improved.  The  cost 
per  ton  per  mile  to  haul  farm  products  over  the  roads  varies  greatly  in 
different  sections,  but  the  average  cost  is  not  less  than  23  cents.  The 
average  haul  that  the  farmer  makes  to  town  is  nine  miles,  or  approx- 
imately $2.07  for  each  ton  hauled.  In  foreign  countries,  and  in  our  own 
country,  where  roads  have  been  improved,  it  costs  8  cents  per  ton  per 
mile,  or  $1.35  per  ton  less  than  over  poor  dirt  roads.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  farmers  of  the  United  States  haul  to  and  from  their  farms 
300,000,000  tons  annually,  or,  in  other  words,  the  farmer  pays 
toll  to  poor  roads  each  year,  amounting  to  the  enormous  sum  of 
$377,500,000  which  could  be  saved  were  the  grades  improved  and  the 
road-bed  made  of  macadam,  concrete  or  some  other  durable  substance. 

We  will  not  attempt  to  recommend  any  special  make  of  roads  to 
meet  all  conditions,  believing  that  the  Good  Roads  Experts  in  the 
states,  who  are  familiar  with  local  conditions,  are  better  able  to  advise 
the  taxpayers. 

In  some  sections,  a  well  made  dirt  road  is  nearly  equal  to  a  macadam. 
In  building  a  dirt  road,  the  first  important  thing  to  consider  is  drainage. 
The  road  should  be  drained  on  either  side  by  means  of  good  sized  tile 
or  deep  ditches  having  a  free  outlet.  The  surface  should  be  rounded 
and  kept  so,  otherwise  the  water  will  not  run  off  rapidly  Ruts  and 
worn  paths  will  soon  make  a  muddy  road,  but  with  a  little  filling  at 

268 


the  right  time  and  the  use  of  a  King  Drag,  the  road  can  be  kept  in 
good   condition   at   small   cost. 

S.  E.  Bradt,  Chairman  of  the  Good  Roads  Committee  of  the  Illinois 
Bankers  Association  has  for  a  number  of  years  made  a  very  careful 
study  of  hard  roads.     In  a  recent  letter  to  the  writer  he  states, 

"Our  macadam  roads  have  been  very  uniformly  ten  feet  wide  and 
nine  or  ten  inches  thick  after  they  were  rolled.  We  put  on  about 
eleven  or  twelve  inches  of  material.  They  cost  from  three  to  four 
thousand  dollars  per  mile  depending  upon  the  length  of  haul  and  whether 
they  are  built  of  stone  furnished  by  the  State  at  a  cost  of  62|  cents 
per  yard  or  stone  that  we  purchased  at  a  cost  of  about  $1.00  per 
yard.     This    cost   includes   grading." 

"The  concrete  road  which  we  built  last  fall  cost  about  $7,500 
exclusive  of  the  preliminary  grading.  The  state  furnished  the  mixer 
and  superintendent  and  two  men  to  operate  the  mixer.  The  road  is 
12  feet  wide  and  6|  inches  thick.  It  was  built  in  October  when  labor 
was  scarce  and  we  were  obliged  to  pay  for  10  hours  work  and  only 
able  to  work  an  average  of  8|  hours.  There  was  also  considerable 
rain  which  caused  delay,  making  the  work  quite  expensive.  We 
could  easily  have  saved  at  least  $500  in  labor  and  material  had  we 
been  working  under  favorable  conditions.  On  each  side  of  the  road 
is  a  macadam  shoulder  2  feet  wide  and  6  inches  thick." 

Following  are  the  details  of  the  cost: 

2274  barrels  cement $2274  .  00 

Sand  and  gravel 1671 .  00 

Expansion  joints 160.00 

Grading.         440.00 

Labor 2216  .  00 

Watchman 125  00 

Coal,  lumber,  oil  and  waste 152  .00 

Car-fare  for  the  laborers 50. 00 

Cost  of  macadam  shoulders 500  .00 

$7588.00 

In  the  above  is  included  the  cost  of  the  labor  furnished  by  the  state. 

Concrete  roads  have  been  built  in  Michigan  complete  for  $10,000 
per  mile.  Rock-macadam  roads  in  Missouri,  Ohio,  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin  have  cost  from  $3000  to  $4000  per  mile.  Gravel  roads  in 
Michigan  and  Iowa,  where  local  gravel  is  near  by,  have  cost  from 
$1000  to  $2000  per  mile.  The  cost,  however,  of  a  permanent  road 
will  depend  entirely  upon  the  character  of  the  material  used,  its  accessi- 
bility  and  the  necessary  amount  of  grading  to  be  done. 

While  the  horse  will  undoubtedly  continue  to  be  the  main  motive 
power  in  the  farmer's  field  for  many  years  to  come,  the  touring  car, 
the  runabout,  the  auto-truck  and  tractor  will  supplant  the  horse  on 
the  roads  very  generally  in  the  near  future.  The  march  of  progress 
will  neither  stop  nor  stay,  nor  will  the  American  people  turn  back  in 
the  onward  movement  to  sustain  their  supremacy.  Goods  roads 
are  as  necessary  to  the  safe  and  profitable  utilization  of  these  new 
methods  of  transportation  as  the  well  ballasted  railroad  bed  is  to  the 


locomotive,  hence  we  are  simply  confronted  with  the  problem  of 
constructing  country  roads  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  times, 
and  we  cannot  evade  our  responsibility  without  being  guilty  of  plac- 
ing stumbling  blocks  in  the  path  of  progress. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow  per  Acre 


Alfalfa  (broadcast) 20  to  25  pounds 

Alfalfa  (drilled) 15  to  20  pounds 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem  _  _6  to  8  bushels 

Barley 8  to  10  pecks 

Bean,  field  (small  varie- 
ties)   2  to  3  pecks 

Bean,  field  (large  varie- 
ties)  5  to  6  pecks 

Beet 4  to  6  pounds 

Blue  grass 25  pounds,  pure 

Brome  grass  (alone  for 

pasture) 15  to  20  pounds 

Brome  grass  (alone  for 

hay) 12  to  15  pounds 

Brome   grass    (in   mix- 
ture)  2  to  5  pounds 

Broom  corn 3  pecks 

Buckwheat 3  to  5  pecks 

Bur-clover 12  pounds 

Carrots  (for  stock) 4  to  6  pounds 

Chick-pea 30  to  50  pounds 

Clover,  alsike  (alone  for 

forage) 8  to  15  pounds 

Clover,  alsike  (on  wheat 

or  rye  in  spring) 4  to  6  pounds 

Clover,       Egyptian   or 

berseem §  to  1  bushel 

Clover,   Japan   (Lespe- 

deza) 12  pounds 

Clover,  Mammoth 12  to  15  pounds 

Clover,   red    (on   small 

grain  in  spring) .-8  to  14  pounds 

Clover,    sweet    (melilo- 

tus) 2  pecks 

Clover,  white 10  to  12  pounds 

Corn 6    quarts    to    1 

bushel 

Corn  (for  silage) 9  to  11  quarts 

Cotton 1  to  3  bushels 

Cow  pea 1  to  1|  bushels 

Cow  pea  (in  drill  with   ■ 

corn) I  to  1  bushel 

Cow  pea  (for  seed) 3  pecks 

Crimson  clover 12  to  15  pounds 

Field  pea  (small  varie- 
ties)  2§  bushels 

Field  pea  (large  varie- 
ties)  3  to  3|  bushels 

Flax  (for  seed) 2  to  3  pecks 

Flax  (for  fiber) 1|  to  2  bushels 

Hemp  (broadcast) 3|  to  4  pecks 

Hungarian  grass  (hay). 2  pecks 

Johnson-grass 1  to  1§  bushels 

Kafir  (drills) 3  to  6  pounds 

Kafir  (for  fodder) 10  to  12  pounds 

Kale 2  to  4  pounds 

Lespedeza 12  pounds 

Lupine 1^  to  2  bushels 

Mangels 5  to  8  pounds 


Millet,  barnyard  (drills)  1  to  2  pecks 
Millet,  foxtails  (drills)  .2  to  3  pecks 
Millet,  German  (seed)  _1  peck 
Millet,  Pearl   (for  soil- 
ing)  4  pounds 

Millet,  Pearl  (for  hay)  .8  to  10  pounds 

Milo 5  pounds 

Oat-grass,  tall 30  pounds 

Oats 2  to  3  bushels 

Oats  and  peas Oats  2  bushels, 

Peas  I  bushel 

Orchard  grass 12  to  15  pounds 

Pure 

Parsnips 4  to  8  pounds 

Popcorn 3  pounds 

Potato,  Irish,  average.  .10  to  14  bushels 
Potato,  cut  to  one  or 

two  eyes 6  to  9  bushels 

Potato,    recommended 
by    many    for    best 

yields 15  to  20  bushels 

Rape  (in  drills) 2  to  4  pounds 

Rape  (broadcast) 4  to  8  pounds 

Red  top,  recleaned 12  to  15  pounds 

Rice 1  to  3  bushels 

Rutabaga 3  to  5  pounds 

Rye 3  to  4  pecks 

Rye  (forage) 3  to  4  bushels 

Rye  grass 2  to  3  bushels 

Sorghum  (forage  broad- 
cast)  1^  to  2  bushels 

Sorghum    (for  seed   or 

syrup) 2  to  5  pounds 

Sorghum,   saccharine 
(for  silage  or  soiling, 

drills) 6   pounds   to    ^ 

bushel 

Sorghum  and  peas 3  to  4  pecks 

each 

Soy  bean  (drills) 2  to  3  pecks 

Soy  bean,  (broadcast)  _1  to  I5  bushels 

Sugar  beets 15  to  20  pounds 

Sugar  cane 4  tons  of  cane 

Sunflower 10  to  15  pounds 

Sweet  clover- 2  to  4  pecks 

Timothy 15  to  25  pounds 

Timothy  and  clover Timothy  10  lbs. 

Clover  4  lbs. 
Turnip,  (broadcast)         2  to  4  pounds 

Turnip  (drills) 1  pound 

Velvet  bean 1  to  4  pecks 

Vetch,  hairy  (drilled)  __1  bushel,  1  bu- 
shel small  grain 
Vetch,     hairy     (broad- 
cast)  I2     bushels,     1 

bushel    small 
grain 
Wheat ---6  to  9  pecks 


Number  of  Pounds  to  the  Bushel  (Legal  Weight)  in 
Different  States. 


States 


O 


Ph 


m 


m 


Q 


u 


o 


m 


Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Maine 

Massachusetts.  _ 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire. 

New  Jersey 

New  York ■_ 

North  Carolina.. 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina. - 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 


52  70 
40  -_ 

48  __ 
5270 
5270 


70 


70 


50 


56:48 


50 


50 


57  50 


57,50 


57 

57150 
60 
57  54 


50  50 
52  46 


60 


46 


60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60,55 


58 


60 


60 


55 


60  60 
60:55 
60  42 


604860 

._!5060 
48  60 
47,60 


48 

48 

48 

48  60 

47:60 
64  48160 
._48'60 
604860 
__|48;60 
60  48  60 
60  48,60 

-J-Jeo 

6048  60 
624860 
_,48  60 
60  48  60 
60  48,60 
47160 
48160 
48|60 
60  4860 
60  48  60 
60  48i60 
60  48:60 
60,48160 


60 


56,24 

541.. 
56!,. 
56|24 
56!24 
56|25 
5624 
5624 
56  24 


50 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
32  56:  . 

32  56'.. 

33  56  26 
32  56  26 
32  56  28 
32  56  _  _ 
32  56  28 
3215628 


56 


6014 


45 


55  64 
5560 
..64 
5660 
56|60 
62 


14 


45 
45 
45 
45 
45 


Capacity  of  Corn  Cribs 

(Height  10  Feet.) 


Lth. 

Vz 

1 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

28 

32 

36 

48 

64 

^  6 

13 

27 

320 

373 

427 

480 

533 

587 

640 

747 

853 

960 

1280 

1707 

1  6K 
^  6M 

13 

28 

333 

389 

444 

500 

556 

611 

667 

778 

889 

1000 

1333 

1777 

14 

29 

347 

404 

462 

520 

578 

636 

693 

809 

924 

1040 

1387 

1849 

15 

30 

360 

420 

480 

540 

600 

660 

720 

840 

960 

1080 

1440 

1920 

7 

16 

31 

373 

436 

498 

560 

622 

684 

747 

871 

996 

1120 

1493 

1991 

7M 

16 

32 

387 

451 

516 

580 

644 

709 

773 

902 

1031 

1160 

1547 

2062 

7^ 

17 

33 

400 

467 

533 

600 

667 

733 

800 

933 

1067 

1200 

1600 

2133 

IH 

17 

34 

413 

482 

551 

620 

689 

758 

827 

964 

1102 

1240 

1653 

2204 

8 

18 

36 

427 

498 

569 

640 

711 

782 

853 

996 

1138 

1280 

1707 

2276 

^V2 

19 

38 

453 

529 

604 

680 

756 

831 

907 

1058 

1209 

1360 

1813 

2418 

9 

20 

40 

480 

560 

640 

720 

800 

880 

960 

1120 

1280 

1440 

1920 

2560 

10 

22 

44 

533 

622 

711 

800 

889 

978 

1067 

1244 

1422 

1600 

2133 

2844 

The  length  is  found  in  top  line,  the  width  in  left-hand  column — the  height  being  taken  at  10  ft.  Thus 
a  crib  25  ft.  long,  V'o  ft.  wide  and  10  ft.  high,  will  hold  800  bushels  of  ear  corn,  reckoning  2 '4  cubic  feet 
to  hold  a  bushel.  If  not  10  ft.  high,  multiply  by  the  given  height  and  cut  off  the  right-hand  figure.  It 
above  crib  were  only  7  ft.  high  it  would  hold"  800  x  7  equals  560  (0  bu.,  etc.).  The  same  space  will  hold 
1  4-5  times  as  much  grain  as  ear  corn.  Thus  a  crib  that  holds  800  bushels  of  ear  corn,  will  hold  800 
X  1  4-5  equals  1440  bushels  of  grain. 

271 


INTERESTING  INFORMATION 

POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1850 23,191,876 

1910 91,972,266 

LAND  AREA  OF  UNITED  STATES  IN  ACRES 

1850 1,884,375,680 

1910 1,903,289,600 

LAND  IN  FARMS,  ACRES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1850 293,560,614 

1910 878,798,325 

IMPROVED  LANDS  IN  FARMS,  ACRES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1850 113,032,614 

1910 478,451,750 

ACRES  OF  IMPROVED  FARM  LAND  IN  THE  STATES 

Alabama 9,693,581 

Arkansas .   8,076,254 

Arizona 350,173 

Connecticut 988,252 

Colorado : ^ 4,302,101 

California 11,389,894 

District  of  Columbia 5,133 

Delaware 713,538 

Florida : 1,805,408 

Georgia 12,298,017 

Indiana - 16,931,252 

Illinois 28,048,323 

Iowa 29,491,199 

Idaho 2,778,740 

Kansas 29,904,067 

Louisiana 5,276,016 

Maine 2,360,657 

Massachusetts 1,164,501 

Michigan 12,832,078 

Minnesota 19,643,533 

Missouri 24,581,186 

Maryland 3,354,767 

Mississippi 9,008,310 

Montana 3,640,309 

New  Hampshire 929,185 

New  York 14,844,039 

New  Jersey 1,803,336 

North  Carolina 8,813,056 

New  Mexico 1,467,191 

Nevada 752,1 17 

North  Dakota 20,455,092 

Nebraska 24,382,577 

Ohio  -    .    - 19,227,969 

Oklahoma 17,551,337 

Oregon , .  -  -  4,274,803 

Pennsylvania 12,673,519 

Rhode  Island- 178,344 

South  Dakota 15,827,208 

South  Carolina 6,097,999 

Texas   -- 27,360,666 

Tennessee 10,890,448 

Utah     1,368,211 

Vermont 1,633,955 

Virginia 9,870,058 

Wisconsin 11,907,606 

West  Virginia . 6,521,757 

Wyoming 1,256,160 

Washington 6,373,311 

272 


AVERAGE  ACREAGE  PER  FARM  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1910 138 . 1 


AVERAGE  IMPROVED  ACRES  PER  FARM  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


1910. 


_75.2 


TOTAL  VALUE  OF  FARM  PROPERTY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1850 $  3,967,343,580  .  00 

1910 40,991,449,000  .  00 

AVERAGE  VALUE  OF  ALL  FARM  PROPERTY  PER  FARM  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1850 $2,738  .  00 

1910 ^  _ .   6,444  .  00 

VALUE  OF  ALL  FARM  PRODUCTS  IN  1912  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1912 $9,532,000,000  .  00 

THE  SIZE  OF  THE  SEAS 


Miles  Long 

Mediterranean 

2,000 

Caribbean 

1,800 

Red 

1,400 

Black 

932 

Baltic _ 

600 

AREA  OF  OCEANS  IN  SQUARE  MILES 


Pacific-  _ 
Atlantic. 

Indian 

Southern. 
Arctic 


.70,000,000 
.35,000,000 
.23,000,000 
.  7,000,000 
.  4,000,000 


SIZE  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES 


Superior 

Michigan,. 

Ontario 

Champlain. 

Erie 

Huron 

Winnipeg.. 
Athabaska. 


Miles  Wide 


120 
60 
40 
12 
50 
90 
40 
20 


S7S 


BOOK-KEEPING  ON  THE  FARM 

WHILE  farmers  are  very  generally  adopting  scientific  methods  in 
tilling  the  soil,  managing  their  crops  and  feeding  stock,  they  are 
still  slow  to  recognize  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  keeping  a  system- 
atic set  of  books. 

Farming  is  a  diversified  business  of  considerable  magnitude.  The 
farmer  pays  out  a  large  sum  of  money  through  many  channels  during 
the  year  and  his  income  is  from  various  sources.  As  a  good  business 
man  he  should  know  the  cost  of  productions  and  maintenance,  not 
only  of  his  operations  as  a  whole,  but  of  each  specific  operation.  He 
should  know  the  cost  of  producing  a  bushel  of  grain,  corn,  potatoes 
or  any  other  product  of  the  soil.  He  should  know  the  cost  of 
feeding  cattle  and  hogs  and  the  net  earnings  of  his  dairy.  If  he  keeps  a 
record  of  these  things  he  will  know  which  feature  to  improve  and  encour- 
age and  which  to  eliminate. 

The  farmer,  like  the  merchant,  should  make  a  complete  inventory  of 
all  of  his  possessions  at  least  once  a  year,  placing  on  each  item  a  fair 
cash  value.  With  each  succeeding  inventory  he  should  add  to  it, 
if  his  property  has  increased,  and  he  should  also  make  a  reasonable 
reduction  for  depreciation,  especially  of  the  perishable  property. 

Many  farmers  hesitate,  believing  that  book-keeping  is  intricate 
and  hard  to  master  and  that  it  will  require  too  much  time.  This, 
however,  is  not  the  case.  A  modified  system  is  very  simple  and  to 
make  daily  records  will  require  but  a  few  moments  of  the  farmer's 
time.  If  the  farmer  can  interest  his  boys  or  girls  in  book-keeping, 
they  will  take  delight  in  keeping  the  records  and  reporting  from  time 
to  time  just  what  each  department  of  the  farm  is  doing. 

Only  three  inexpensive  books  are  required,  namely,  a  day-book, 
journal  and  ledger.  Farmers  who  have  adopted  systematic  book- 
keeping unhesitatingly  state  that  it  is  indispensable  to  them  and  should 
be  to  any  farmer  who  wants  to  know  the  details  of  his  business. 

A  practical  and  simple  system  which  will  serve  as  a  splendid 
guide  to  those  who  are  inexperienced  in  book-keeping  can  be 
secured  by  sending  ten  cents  to  the  Soil  Culture  Department  of 
Deere  &  Company. 


274 


INDEX 


Page 

ALFALFA 161 

Requirements 163 

Inoculation  Sometimes  Necessary 163 

Qualities  of  Alfalfa 163 

When  to  Sow    164 

Amount  of  Seed  to  Sow 164 

Bacteria 164 

Cultivation 165 

Digestible  Nutrients   and    Fertilizing    Con- 
stituents      166 


ALKALI 

What  Is  Alkali? 

How  to  Remedy  Alkali  Soils ,  . 
Crops  Adapted  to  Alkali  Soils 
Seeding  Alkali  Soils 


BARLEY 

Varieties 

Soils 

Rotation 

Seeding 

Composition  of  Barley . 


BEEF  CATTLE — Feeding  and  Care  of    .  .  . 

Open  Shed  vs.  Confinement 

Box-Fed  vs.  Stall-Fed 

Feeding  Corn  in  Various  Forms  to  Steers 

Good  Rations 

Sugar-Beet  Pulp 


BEGGAR  WEED 

Digestible  Nutrients    and    Fertilizing    Con- 
stituents  


BUCKWHEAT 


12 
12 
12 
13 
13 

119 
119 
120 
120 
120 
121 

244 
244 
244 
245 
246 
247 

179 


125 

CALVES— Feeding  and  Care  of 231 

How  to  Care  for  the  Dairy  Calf 231 

Feeding  the  Calf 231 

Martm's  Rations  for  Calves  234 

Pens 234 

Scours 234 

CLOVER 166 

Winter-Killing 169 

Seeding 169 

Varieties 170 

Rotation 172 

Harvesting 172 

Digestible    Nutrients  and   Fertilizing   Con- 
stituents    172 

CORN    87 

Value  of  Corn 87 

Source  of  Fertility 87 

Utilization  of  Various  Elements  Existing  in 

the  Soil 87 

Advantage  of  Feeding  Corn  to  Live-Stock .  .  89 

Fertility 91 

Is  Fertility  Waning? 92 

Seed 93 

Wisconsin      Experiments     with      Different 

Varieties 95 

Barren  Stalks 96 

Seed-House 97 

Cultivation 100 

Length  and  Depth  of  Roots  102 

Kind  of  Cultivator  to  Use  102 

When  to  Use  the  Mulch  Harrow 104 

How  to  Raise  100  Bushels  of  Corn  Per  Acre.  104 

COTTON 141 

The  Seed-Bed 142 

Fertility 142 

Rotation 144 

Seed 144 

Diseases  and  Pests 144 

Remedies 147 

The  Boll-Weevil 147 

COW  PEAS 173 

Digestible    Nutrients   and   Fertilizing   Con- 
stituents    175 


Page 

DAIRY  COWS— Rations  for 221 

Good  and  Poor  Rations 222 

Ear    Corn    Compared    with    Corn-and-Cob 

Meal 223 

Corn  and  Mixed  Grains 225 

Ground  Oats  and  Bran 225 

Kaffir  Meal 225 

Gluten  Feed  Compared  with  Wheat  Bran 

and  Corn  Meal 226 

Cotton  Seed  Meal  Compared  with  Various 

Feeds 226 

Dried     Brewers'     Grains    Compared     with 

Wheat  Bran 226 

Corn  Silage  Compared  with  Corn  Fodder.  .  .  227 

Corn  Silage  Compared  with  Sugar  Beets.  .  .  .  227 

Soilage  vs.  Pasture 228 

Grinding  Grain  for  Cows 228 

Corn  Silage  vs.  Corn  Fodder 229 

A  Well-Balanced  Ration 229 

A  Good  Ration  for  an  Average  Herd 230 

Various  Rations  for  Dairy  Cows 230 

A  Safe  Guide 230 

DAIRYING 215 

Testing  a  Cow 217 

Selecting  a  Herd 219 

Care  of  the  Cow  and  Dairy  Buildings 219 

Contagious  Abortion  in  Cows  and  How  to 

Prevent  It 221 

DRAINAGE 37 

Why  Lands  Are  Made  More  Productive  by 

Drainage 37 

Drain  Tile  Improve  the  Soil  Physically 39 

Drainage  Prevents  Surface  Washing 39 

Water-Holding  Capacity  of  Soil 39 

Power  of  Soil  to  Absorb  Moisture  from  the 

Air 40 

Size  of  Drain  Tile  to  Use 40 

Amount  of  Drain  Tile  Required  Per  Acre ...  41 

Depth  of  Drains 41 

How  to  Lay  Pipe 41 

DRY-LAND  FARMING 150 

The  Seed-Bed 150 

Plowing 151 

Use  of  Harrow,  Disc  and  Packer 151 

Kind  of  Implements  to  Use.  .                          .  151 

Storing  Water .  153 

Subsoiling 154 

Conserving  Water 155 

Soils  Adapted  to  Dry-Land  Farming.          ..  155 

Capillary  Attraction .     .       156 

Summer  Fallowing  157 

Surface  Mulch.  .  158 

Fertility 158 

Rotation 158 

Planting 159 

Seed 1.59 

Drouth-Resisting  Crops 160 


FARM  GARDEN 
FLAX 


FOREWORD 


261 
125 


GRASSES 180 

Essential  Features  to  Be  Observed  in  Grow- 
ing Grasses 180 

Adaptation  to  Soil  and  Climate 180 

Character  of  the  Seed-Bed 180 

Varieties 180 

Timothy 180 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass 180 

Redtop 182 

Orchard  Grass 182 

Brome  Grass 182 

Johnson  Grass 183 

Rye  Grass 183 

Bermuda  Grass 183 

Quack  Grass 183 

Effect  of  Grasses  on  Soil 184 


275 


INDEX— Continued 


GOOD  ROADS. 


Page 
.   268 


HAY,  Making 185 

How  to  Cure  Hay 185 

HORSES  (Feeds) 252 

HOW  CAN  THE  FARM  BE  MADE  MORE 


ATTRACTIVE?. 


263 
41 


IRRIGATION 

Important  Things  to  Be  Observed  in  Irri- 
gating       42 

Benefits  of  Using  the  Two- Way  Plow 42 

KAFFIR  CORN 125 

LIME....' 79 

LIVE-STOCK 198 

Value  of  Live-Stoek  to  the  Farmer 198 

Stock-Raising  Profitable 198 

Relation  of  Stock  to  Prices  of  Products ....    198 

Relation  of  Stock  to  Fertility 199 

Breeds 200 

Herefords 201 

Shorthorns 201 

Galloways 201 

Aberdeen-Angus 202 

Sussex 202 

Other  Breeds 202 

Dairy  Cattle 203 

The  Ideal  Dairy  Type 203 

Holsteins 206 

Jerseys 206 

Guernseys 206 

Ayrshires 206 

Other  Breeds 206 

Feeding 210 

Rations 210 

The  Nutrients  in  Feeds 211 

How  to  Determine  a  Balanced  Ration 212 

Water 213 

Air : 214 

MANURES 49 

Definition  of 49 

Kinds 49 

Plant  Food  in  Stock  Feeds 50 

Plant  Food  in  a  Ton  of  Fresh  Dung 50 

Plant  Food  in  Urine 51 

Composition  of  Farm  Manures 51 

Composition  of  Litter 51 

Plant  Food  Removed  by  Crops 53 

Humus 55 

Value  of  Humus 55 

Dairy  Cow  in  Wisconsin 57 

Preserving  Manures 61 

Value  of  Manure 61 

Composting 63 

Loss  from  Leaching.  Evaporation,  Etc 63 

How  to  Spread 65 

Cost  of  Spreading  Manure 67 

Benefits  of  Manure 69 

Results  of  Various  Tests 69 

Results  from  Spreading  with  a  Spreader  and 

by  Hand 71 

Top-Dressing  Growing  Crops 73 

Green  Manures 74 

Effect  of  Green-Manuring 75 

Commercial  Fertilizers   76 

Lime 79 

Quantity  of  Lime  to  Apply 81 

Kind  of  Lime  to  Apply 82 

When  to  Apply  Lime 82 

How  to  Apply  Lime 82 

Salt 83 

Peat,  Muck,  Leaf  Mould 84 

Poultry  Manure 85 

MILLETS 187 

Varieties 187 

Uses 189 

Seeding 189 

Harvesting 1S9 


Page 
MILO  MAIZE 126 

MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 270 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow  Per  Acre 270 

Number  of  Pounds  to  the  Bushel  in  Different 

States 271 

Capacity  of  Corn  Cribs 271 

Population  of  the  United  States 272 

Land  Area  of  United  States  in  Acres 272 

Land  in  Farms,  Acres  in  the  United  States  272 
Improved   Lands   in   Farms,   Acres  in   the 

United  States 272 

Acres  of  Improved  Farm  Land  in  the  States  272 
Average  Acreage   Per  Farm  in  the  United 

States 273 

Average  Improved  Acres  Per  Farm  in  the 

United  States 273 

Total  Value  of  All  Farm  Property,  Per  Farm, 

in  the  United  States 273 

Average  Value  of  All  Farm  Property  in  the 

United  States 273 

Value  of  All  Farm  Products  in  1912  in  the 

United  States 273 

The  Size  of  the  Seas 273 

Area  of  Oceans  in  Square  Miles 273 

Size  of  the  Great  Lakes 273 

MODERN  FARMING  METHODS 14 

Essential  Features  to  Be  Observed 14 

Stock-Raising 14 

Crop-Raising 15 

The  Seed-Bed 15 

Water 18 

Humus 20 

Fertility 20 

Rotation 22 

How  Plants  Feed 22 

Seed 23 

Cultivation  of  Plants 23 

OATS 106 

Soil 107 

Fertility 107 

Rotation 107 

Varieties 107 

Seed 107 

Diseases,  and  How  to  Prevent 108 

Oats  for  Forage 108 

Digestive  Nutrients 109 

PLOWING 24 

Why  We  Plow 24 

When  to  Plow 24 

How  to  Plow 24 

Depth  to  Plow 25 

Cropping  Lessens  Amount  of  Humus 26 

Influence  of  Different  Systems  of  Farming 

Upon  Humus  Content  of  Soil 26 

When  Not  to  Till  Deep 27 

Benefits  of  Deep  Tillage 27 

Soil  Which  Admits  of  Deep  Plowing 28 

Deep  Plowing  Without  Bringing  Subsoil  to 

the  Surface ' 29 

The  Jointer 29 

Subsoil 30 

Different  Types  of  Subsoil  Plows 31 

Benefits  of  Subsoiling 32 

When  Not  to  Use  the  Subsoil  Plow 33 

POTATOES 131 

Soil 131 

Depth  to  Plow 132 

Depth  to  Plant 132 

Fertilizers 132 

Cultivation 133 

Seed 134 

How  to  Cut  Seed 134 

Diseases 135 

Planting 135 

Harvesting J-J*^ 

Storing l-'" 


INDEX— Continued 


Page 

POULTRY 253 

Breeds 254 

Feeding 256 

Feed  for  Laying  Hens 258 

The  Hen  House 260 

Diseases 261 

RAPE 189 

Soil 191 

Time  to  Sow 191 

Uses 191 


RICE 


128 


ROTATION 43 

VMue  of  Rotation 43 

Crops    Which    Should    Not    Succeed    Each 

Other 45 

Lucerne  or  Alfalfa 45 

Clover 45 

Lime 47 

Winter-Killing 47 

A  Good  Rotation 47 

RYE 123 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  Rye  Products    123 

SALT 83 


SEED 

How  to  Tpst 


SEED-BED. 


SEPTIC  TANK 


33 
265 


SHEEP  AND  LAMBS— Feeding  and  Care.  .  248 

Exposure  vs.  Confinement 250 

Salt 251 

Corn  Silage  vs.  Roots : 251 

Alfalfa  Hay  vs.  Prairie  Hay    251 

SILO 191 

Food  Value  of  the  Corn  Plant 193 

When  to  Fill  the  Silo 193 

Silo  Construction 195 

Capacity  of  a  Silo 197 

Summer  Silo 197 

SOIL 10 

What  Is  Soil? 10 

Essential  Inorganic  Elements  of 10 

Requirements  of  Plants  in 10 

Productiveness  of 10 


How  to  Improve  Physical  Condition  of. 

Formation  of 

Classification  of 

Sedentary  Soils 

Transported  Soils ; 

Sand 

Clay 

Silt 

Loam 

Weight  of  Soils 


Page 
11 

7 
8 


SPELTZ 121 

Feeding  Speltz 122 

SWEET  POTATO 


137 

SWINE 207 

Types  and  Breeds 207 

Care  andFeed 235 

Care  of  Pigs 235 

Feeding  Pigs 236 

Various  Rations 238-243 

SUGAR  BEETS 139 

Soils  and  Fertilizers 139 

Drainage 140 

Cultivation 141 

Rotation 141 

TOBACCO  149 

VELVET  BEANS 177 

Digestible    Nutrients   and    Fertilizing   Con- 
stituents   178 

VETCH 178 

Digestib'e    Nutrients   and    Fertilizing   Con- 
stituents   179 

WHEAT  109 

Varieties                                              109 

Germination Ill 

Loss  in  Weight  During  Germination Ill 

Roots Ill 

Stooling                 Ill 

Seed-Bed 112 

Rotation 113 

Fertility 114 

Manures 115 

Seed 116 

Seed  Should  Be  Adapted  to  Locality 117 

Insects 117 

Seeding 117 

Roller  and  Harrow 118 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  Wheat.  ...  119 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

Field  of  Corn 16 

Sun-Baked  Soil 17 

The  Ideal  Seed-Bed •   18 

Different  Kinds  of  Seed-Beds, 21 

Plow  in  Operation 25 

Deep  Plow  in  Operation 29 

Plow  Equipped  with  Subsoil  Attachment ....  30 

Subsoil  Plow  in  Operation 31 

Seed-Bed  Showing  Escape  of  Moisture 34 

Seed-Bed  Showing  the  EflTect  of  a  Mulch.  ...  34 

Seed-Bed  Not  Disced  Before  Plowing 35 

Seed-Bed  Disced  Before  Plowing 35 

A  Good  Seed-Bed 35 

The  Disc  Harrow 36 

The  Two- Way  Plow 43 

Corn  in  Rotation  with  Oats  and  Clover 44 

Herd  of  Guernsey  Cows 48 

A  Manure  Pit 52 

Manure  Spreader 54 

How  Fertility  Is  Lost 56 

Cheap  Manure  Pit 58 

Poor  Way  to  Spread  Manuic 60 

Spreading  Manure  from  a  Wagon 62 

Placing  Manure  in  Piles 64 

Loading  Manure 66 

Brownies  at  Work 68 

Top-Dressing  Corn 70 

Top-Dressed  Meadow 72 

Sowing  Lime  with  a  Manure  Spreader 78 

Field  of  Boone  County  White  Corn 88 

Field  of  Reed's  Yellow  Dent  Corn 90 

A  Good  Type  of  Seed-Corn 94 

Brown's  Seed-Corn  Tester .  98 

Surface  Cultivator 100 


Page 
Results  of  Cultivating  to  Different  Depths .        101 

Combination  Cultivator 103 

Cutting  Wheat  on  a  Dakota  Farm 110 

Corrugated  Roller 118 

Field  of  Kaffir  Corn 124 

Potato  Digger  in  Operation 136 

Flexible  Pulverizer  and  Packer 152 

Subsoil  Plow 154 

Alfalfa 162 

Alfalfa  Cultivator 165 

Field  of  Clover 168 

Field  of  Cow  Peas     174 

Field  of  Soy  Beans 176 

Dain  Side-Delivery  Hay  Rake 186 

Hay  Loader 188 

Dain  Hay  Stacker  at  Work 190 

Dain  Power  Baler  at  Work 192 

Silos 194 

Filling  a  Silo 196 

A  Typical  Beef  Animal 202 

Imported  Dorset 204 

The  Hampshire  Hog 208 

Pure-Bred  Guernsey  Calves 216 

A  Modern  Dairy  Barn 218 

Lord  Balam 220 

Bopeep 224 

Wyandottes 254 

Leghorns 255 

Brahmas 256 

Plymouth  Rocks 257 

White-Crested  Black  Polish 259 

R  &  V  Triumph 263 

Cream  Separator,  Churn  and  Washer 264 

Septic  Tank 266 


278 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


Form  L9-75Tn,-7,'61(0l437s4)444 


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